Lecture: Planetology. Part II: Solar System Planetology. A. Components of Solar System. B. Formation of Solar System. C. Xtra Solar Planets
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1 Part II: Solar System Planetology A. Components of Solar System 2 Lecture: Planetology B. Formation of Solar System C. Xtra Solar Planets Updated: Oct 31, 2006 A. Components of Solar System 3 The Solar System 3 1. Terrestrial Planets 2. Jovian Planets 3. Minor Planets (Asteroids) 4. Comets & Kuiper Belt The Solar System 3 A.1: The Terrestrial (Earth-like) Planets 2 All planets lie in the ecliptic plane (except pluto) 1
2 Moons are also planetary-like Our Moon looks much like Mercury, both have lots of craters and no atmosphere Some regions on the Moon have more craters than other areas. What does this tell us? Contrasting regions on the Moon A lightly cratered region, showing smooth regions and only a few mountains. A heavily cratered region, showing craters and mountains, and much topography A region of the Moon, showing heavily and lightly cratered parts of the surface This is true for other planets, such as Mercury Photo from Lick Observatory Lighter Heavier 2
3 How can we use crater density (the number of craters per unit area of the surface) to estimate the relative ages of these different surfaces on the Moon or a planet? The Beach: A young surface Consider a beach on planet Earth The Beach: An old suface A mix of old and young surfaces Youngest Intermediate Oldest 3
4 Estimate the age of the beach surface * Observations: Three areas of the beach Estimate the age of the beach surface Observations: Three areas of the beach 2 prints/m 2 12 prints/m 2 Saturated (>20 prints/m 2 ) * Age means the time since the last wave came along and wiped away the footprints. 2 prints/m 2 12 prints/m 2 Saturated (>20 prints/m 2 ) Assumption: One person (2 prints) walks by every hour. and no waves have washed away prints for at least a day Estimate the age of the beach surface Observations: Three areas of the beach 2 prints/m 2 12 prints/m 2 Saturated (>20 prints/m 2 ) Assumption: One person (2 prints) walks by every hour. and no waves have washed away prints for at least a day Conclusions: a) The first area is about 1 hour old b) The second area is about 6 hours old c) The third area is 10 or more hours old The same principle is applied to planetary surfaces that show different crater densities It is assumed that craters are caused by impacting objects; that is, they are impact craters Saturn s satellite Enceladus It is further assumed that the rate of impacts has changed greatly over the age of the Solar System In the earliest few hundred million years after the origin of the Earth, Moon, and planets, the rate of impacts was very high, but rapidly reduced to a very small rate that continues to the present day. We will return to this in another lecture. Summary of Cratering Studies Planetary surfaces show a wide range of crater densities. Most of the craters were formed in the earliest years of the Solar System s history. With certain assumptions, we can use crater densities on planetary surfaces to estimate the relative ages of those surface regions. Some are extremely old, others are very young. 4
5 How we measure the absolute ages of rocks from Earth, the Moon, Mars, and the asteroids Rocks contain small quantities of radioactive elements and their daughter elements. The original radioactive elements (formed in stars) were incorporated into the rocky planets as they formed. Over the years, the radioactive elements spontaneously decay to make other elements. This process continues to the present time. Table 6-3, p.145 How it works We can measure the amounts of Uranium, Lead, Rubidium, Strontium, and other parent-daughter combinations of elements in meteorites and in lunar rocks. Knowing the half-life of each of these transmutations allows us to calculate the age of the meteorite. The age of a rock is the time since it last solidified from the molten state. Parts of the Allende meteorite solidified billion years ago Fig 6-11, p.145 The Age of the Moon s Surface The Apollo astronauts brought rocks back from the Moon (late 1960s to early 1970s) We use the radioactive element dating technique to determine their ages They are very old, but not as old as the meteorites The combination of absolute ages of the rocks and relative ages of surface regions determined from crater densities gives a detailed chronology of the history of the Moon. More about this when we discuss the Moon Craters: The result of the impact of asteroids and comets on the planets Diameter ~0.8 mile Age ~50,000 years Meteor Crater in Arizona Meteor Crater Diameter In ~0.8 Arizona mile 5
6 Objects from space, entering Earth s atmosphere and impacting on the surface Manicouagan Crater in Canada An impact crater preserved in the ancient rocks of the Canadian Shield. Diameter 70 km (45 miles) Age 200 million years Differentiation a planetary process Gravity causes denser materials (e.g., iron) to settle to the center of a planet while it is molten. Terrestrial Planets often have Iron cores, and hence a magnetic field Lower density materials (e.g., silicate rocks) float to the surface. The Earth has a rocky crust (silicon) and a molten iron core. The heat has caused volcanoes; the lava flows have covered up craters. 6
7 The Aurora (Northern or Southern Lights) The aurora arises from the interaction of the solar wind with a planet s magnetic field Surprise: Gas Giants show Auroras, hence have magnetic fields, but don t have iron core (?) Saturn Jupiter A.2: The Jovian Planets 2 A.2: The Jovian Planets 2 A.2: The Jovian Planets 2 Density The density of a material is the mass contained in a particular volume. Density = Mass / Volume The density of water is 1 gram/cubic cm 7
8 Densities of typical Solar System materials H 2 O = 1 (gram/cm 3 ) Rock (typical) = 2.5 Iron = 7.9 Lead = 11.4 Earth = 5.5 Moon = 3.3 Jupiter = 1.3 Table 6-2, p.139 A.3: Moons & Minor Planets Some of the moons are bigger than planet Mercury! 2 A.3: Minor Planets: Asteroids Big belt of asteroids between Mars and Jupiter Eros Other objects in the Solar System The Asteroids A.4 What about Pluto? Asteroid Eros Asteroid Gaspra 8
9 Hubble Space Telescope: Our best image of Pluto Pluto and the New Horizons Mission Other objects in the Solar System Objects Beyond Pluto The Trans-Neptunian Objects Sizes of three Trans-Neptunian Objects compared to the Earth and the Moon A new object larger than Pluto has recently been announced. Is it the 10 th Planet? Comets Comet Hale-Bopp Table 6-1, p.136 9
10 Other objects in the Solar System The Comets Dust from comets falls into the Earth s atmosphere, making meteors ( shooting stars ) Comet Halley 1986 Comet Tempel 1, Hit by Deep Impact July 4, 2005 B. The Birth of Planets We Are Star Stuff -Iron-bearing hemoglobin carries oxygen through our bloodstream -Chains of carbon and nitrogen form proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in our cells -Calcium strengthens our bones -Sodium and potassium ions moderate communications of the nervous system We Are Star Stuff -Iron-bearing hemoglobin carries oxygen through our bloodstream -Chains of carbon and nitrogen form proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in our cells -Calcium strengthens our bones -Sodium and potassium ions moderate communications of the nervous system All these elements were created by STARS! 10
11 Star Birth (related to planetary formation ) Stars begin their lives in a MOLECULAR CLOUD. Cold (10-30 K) Made mostly of H and He Dense compared to interstellar space, but not dense compared to vacuum on Earth Collapse of the Cloud Cold temp & relatively high density allow gravity to overcome thermal pressure, leading to gravitational collapse of cloud. During collapse, cloud remains <100 K, glows in infrared light. Molecular cloud Barnard 68, 500 light years away, 1/2 light year across. Orion Nebula, 1500 light years away, Trapezium cluster of O stars (HST) Formation of Protostar Formation of Protostellar disk Cloud continues to collapse, increasing the density. Radiation becomes trapped, temperature rises. Protostar forms: thermal energy cannot escape, internal temp & pressure increase --> this rising pressure begins to fight the crush of gravity. Orion Nebula, 1500 light years away, infrared image. Color corresponds to temperature of emitting gas. (HST) To conserve angular momentum, a protostellar disk must form encircling the protostar. Cloud fragments spin faster as it collapses. Rotating cloud flattens to form protostellar disk. Protostellar disks become planetary systems? Protostellar disk thermal dust emission, NGC 7538 S, rotating disk of gas = 100 solar masses, compact dense core cloud = 1000 solar masses. Distance = 10,000 light years. Green = cloud core, yellow = protostellar disk, red = protostar. Contours show disk rotation (red = receding disk, blue = disk coming towards us). Formation of the Solar System Formation of the Solar System Nebular Theory of Formation We already know the stars (including our Sun) formed from a swirling cloud of gas & dust (nebula). Our solar system formed 4.6 billion years ago. By this time, heavy elements had been formed in the earlier generations of massive stars (so we can make the rocky terrestrial planets, life, etc). Eagle nebula from HST SOLAR NEBULA is the collapsed part of the giant interstellar cloud that formed the Sun. SOLAR NEBULA temp increases with collapse (gravitational potential energy converted to kinetic energy). SOLAR NEBULA is hottest at center, forming PROTOSUN. SOLAR NEBULA shrinks in radius, spins faster. Rotation ensures not all material falls into protosun (the more angular momentum of rotating cloud, the more spread out is the disk) SOLAR NEBULA flattens into PROTOPLANETARY DISK. 11
12 Artist conception of protoplanetary disk 12
13 Formation of the Solar System Building the Planets CONDENSATES: The type of material to condense from the disk depends on the temperature (hotter closer to protosun, cooler further from protosun). FROST LINE: Rock & metals can condense anywhere it is cooler than about 1300 K. Carbon grains & ices can only condense where the gas is cooler than 300 K. ACCRETION: Particles collide and stick together to form PLANETESIMALS. SOLAR WIND clears out remaining gas from solar system. Leftover planetesimals became COMETS and ASTEROIDS. 13
14 Heavy Bombardment The early solar system was a violent place with many impacts & collisions of planetesimals. Moon Formation Moon likely formed from an impact into Earth. MARS MOON Solar System Observations Can you explain each of these observations in terms of the theory of solar system formation? PATTERNS OF MOTION Planets orbit the sun in the same direction. Planets orbit in nearly the same plane on nearly circular orbits. Gas giant moons orbit the planet in the same direction as the planet s rotation. The Sun rotates in the same direction as the planets orbit. Solar System Observations Can you explain each of these observations in terms of the theory of solar system formation? CATEGORIZING PLANETS Terrestrial planets are closer to the Sun, composed of solid, rocky surfaces with an abundance of metals, few moons, and no rings. Jovian planets are further from the Sun, are very large, and composed mostly of H, He, and H compounds such as ammonia, water, and methane (gas giants). Each jovian planet has rings and multiple moons. Solar System Observations Can you explain each of these observations in terms of the theory of solar system formation? ASTEROIDS AND COMETS Asteroids are small rocky bodies that orbit the Sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter (asteroid belt). Asteroids orbit in the plane of the planets in mostly circular orbits (but some erratic orbits as well). Comets are small, icy bodies that spend most of their time beyond the orbit of Pluto and on rare occasions enter the inner solar system. C. Extra-Solar Planets Discovery of Planets around other stars! 3 14
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