Unit 1 Discovering the Heavens I. Introduction to Astronomy A. Celestial Sphere

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1 Unit 1 Discovering the Heavens I. Introduction to Astronomy A. Celestial Sphere celestial sphere - a model that represents the real sky with the Earth at the center - used to help visualize positions of stars in the sky zenith the point directly above an observer s head celestial equator a line representing the intersection of the Earth s equatorial plane with the celestial sphere meridian - an imaginary line that runs from north to south through an observer s zenith Daily Changes the apparent motion of the stars is a result the Earth s rotation on its axis rotation the spinning of the Earth (or other celestial body) on its axis solar day period of time from one noon to the next noon. sidereal day time it takes a star to go from the meridian back to the meridian the interval of time between noon one day and noon the next day (solar day) is greater than one rotation period (sidereal day)

2 Seasonal Changes the regular seasonal changes in the stars are due to the Earth s revolution around the sun revolution the movement of the Earth (or other celestial body) around the sun (or other star) ecliptic the apparent path the sun takes in the sky zodiac the 12 constellations through which the sun passes as it moves along the ecliptic Summer Solstice the point on the ecliptic where the sun is at its northernmost point above the celestial equator. Winter Solstice the point on the ecliptic where the sun is at its southernmost point below the celestial equator Equinox the point (2) where the ecliptic intersects the celestial equator Vernal Equinox the sun crosses the celestial equator moving north. Autumnal Equinox the sun crosses the celestial equator moving south Long-Term Changes precession - as the Earth spins on its axis, the Earth s axis changes direction over time the angle between the axis and the plane of the ecliptic remains close to 23.5 one complete cycle = 26,000 years

3 B. Constellations constellation a group of stars in the night sky which seem to make a picture of a person, or animal, or object named after mythological beings different constellations are seen in the night sky at different times of the year as the Earth revolves around the sun circumpolar stars never rise or set stars are always above the horizon seasonal constellations stars in the night sky change with the changing seasons due to Earth s revolution around the sun Summer: Cygnus, Scorpius, Sagittarius, Libra Fall: Pegasus, Aquarius, Pisces, Aries Winter: Orion, Taurus, Gemini Spring: Cancer, Leo, Virgo C. Coordinate Systems Horizon Coordinate System based on compass direction not fixed to the sky (as an object moves in the sky, the altitude and azimuth constantly change) altitude how high above the horizon an object is measured in degrees ( ) azimuth how far from north an object is in the sky measured in degrees ( ) North = 0 East = 90 South = 180 West = 270

4 Celestial Coordinate System Celestial Coordinate System - coordinate system used on the celestial sky analogous to latitude and longitude on Earth s surface right ascension (RA) measured in time (hours, minutes, and seconds) from the vernal equinox increases eastward from vernal equinox declination (dec.) measured in degrees ( ) north (+) or south (-) of the celestial equator celestial equator = 0 north celestial pole = +90 south celestial pole = -90 D. Motions of the Moon phases of the moon the regular cycle of the changing appearance of the moon the moon emits no light of its own shines by reflected light we see the varying amounts of the moon s daylight side as the moon orbits the Earth sidereal month time it takes the moon to complete one revolution around the Earth with respect to the stars 27.3 days synodic month time it takes the moon to complete a full cycle of phases 29.5 days longer than sidereal month due to Earth s motion around the sun the moon must complete slightly more than one full revolution to return to the same phase E. Eclipses lunar eclipse when the sun and moon are in opposite directions as seen from Earth and the Earth s shadow crosses the moon s surface darkening the moon umbra central region of shadow where eclipse is total penumbra within the shadow, but outside the umbra where eclipse is partial

5 Eclipses partial lunar eclipse part of the moon s surface is in shadow - alignment of the Sun, Earth, and Moon is imperfect total lunar eclipse entire moon s surface is in shadow moon looks deep red due to small amount of sunlight that is refracted through the Earth s atmosphere not every Full or New moon experiences an eclipse the moon s orbit around the Earth is tilted at ~ 5 degrees solar eclipse when the moon and Sun are in the exact same direction as seen from Earth and the moon s shadow crosses the Earth s surface seen on only a small portion of the Earth total solar eclipse alignment is perfect and the entire surface of sun is blocked by the moon can see the sun s corona partial solar eclipse a portion of the sun s disk is blocked by the moon annular solar eclipse the moon is too far from Earth to completely cover the sun the sun appears as a ring Moon s orbit around the Earth is elliptical (oval shaped) closest to Earth at perigee furthest from Earth at apogee an annular solar eclipse occurs when the moon is too far from Earth to completely cover the sun

6 F. Astronomical Measurements light year the distance light travels in a year at a speed of 300,000 km/second ~ ten trillion kilometers (10,000,000,000,000 km) parallax the apparent displacement of a foreground object relative to the background stars as the observers location changes shift is measured as an angle on the celestial sphere - the closer an object is to the observer, the larger the shift) parallax is measured in arc seconds (1 = 1/3600 ) distance is in parsecs distance to a star whose parallax equals 1 (equals 3.26 light years) d = 1 p p = parallax angle (") II. History of Astronomy B. Geocentric Universe earliest models of the universe were based on the idea that the Sun, Moon, and planets all orbit the Earth models needed to explain how the planets appeared to wander against the background stars prograde motion direct motion -motion of a planet to the east retrograde motion backward (westward) motion of a planet Geocentric Model Earth is at the center of the universe and all other bodies moved around the Earth idea by Greek philosopher Aristotle all bodies around the Earth had uniform motion circular could not explain variations in brightness, or retrograde motion of planets Ptolemaic Model complex geocentric model of the universe that could explain the variations in brightness and retrograde motion of the planets model survived for ~13 centuries epicycle a small circle each planet moves around on deferent larger circle the epicycle is centered on and moves around the Earth

7 C. Heliocentric Universe Heliocentric Model the Earth and planets orbit the sun sun centered first proposed by Aristarchus of Samos ( BC) rediscovered by Copernicus Earth and planets orbit the sun in perfect circles the heliocentric model simply explains the observed daily and seasonal changes of sun and stars, the variations in brightness of the planets, and retrograde motion Copernican Revolution: the Earth is not at the center of everything the Earth is only the center of gravity and of the lunar orbit all planets revolve around the sun stars are much further away than the sun stars are so far away that the apparent motion of the stars is a result of the Earth s rotation the sun s apparent daily and yearly motion is the result of the Earth s motions the apparent motions of the planets (direct and retrograde) are the result of Earth s motion around the sun Galileo used a telescope to observe the sky discovered the moon had craters much like the terrain on Earth discovered sunspots on the sun found the sun rotates discovered 4 moons orbiting Jupiter support of Copernicus s model Earth not at the center of everything discovered Venus shows a complete cycle of phases only explained if Venus is orbiting the sun published The Starry Messenger in 1610 describing his findings this book challenged both scientific and religious theories

8 Heliocentric Universe Johannes Kepler developed laws of planetary motion Kepler s 1 st Law the orbital paths of the planets are elliptical with the sun at one focus eccentricity ratio of the distance between foci to the length of the major axis Kepler s 2 nd Law an imaginary line connecting the sun to any planet sweeps out equal areas of the ellipse in equal intervals of time aphelion position in orbit of a planet when it is furthest from the sun perihelion position in orbit of a planet when it is closest to the sun Kepler s 3 rd Law the size of a planet s orbit is related to the period (time it takes a planet to orbit the sun): P 2 = a 3 P = period of revolution a = astronomical unit (A.U.) - average distance of the Earth and Sun Sir Isaac Newton - explained why the planets move according to Kepler's laws published his basic laws of motion in the Principia Newton's 1 st Law - law of inertia - a body in motion will stay in motion unless acted upon by another force the greater the mass of an object, the greater inertia it has requires no force to maintain constant velocity Newton's 2 nd Law - law of acceleration - the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to its mass: F = ma F = force m = mass a = acceleration the greater the force acting on the object (or the smaller the mass of the object), the greater the acceleration Newton's 3 rd Law - for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

9 gravity - any object having mass exerts an attractive force on all other objects the more massive the object, the stronger the gravitation pull Inverse-Square Law - strength of the gravitational force decreases in proportion to the square of the distance to the object Heliocentric Universe Newton's Law of Gravity - every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distances from each other: gravitational force = mass object 1 x mass object 2 distance 2 III. Light an Matter A. Light and Waves electromagnetic radiation - energy carried in the form of waves visible light - type of electromagnetic radiation that human eyes are sensitive to - small region of the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength - the distance between two adjacent wave crests (peaks) or troughs (lows) amplitude height (intensity) of the wave frequency - the number of wave crests (or troughs) passing a given point per unit of time - measured in hertz (Hz)

10 the complete spectrum of electromagnetic radiation: all move at the speed of light (186,000mi/sec; 300,000 km/hr) all are the same phenomenon but differ only in wavelength B. Electromagnetic Spectrum the shorter the wavelength (high frequency), the more energy the waves have opacity - how much radiation is blocked by the atmosphere - the more opaque, the less radiation gets through it only radio waves, and visible light can reach the ground from space C. "Blackbody" Spectrum all objects above absolute zero (the coldest temperature an object can get - where no molecular motion occurs) emit radiation temperature - measure of the amount of motion in an object the hotter an object is, the faster its particles move and the more energy they radiate Blackbody - an idealized (not real) object that absorbs all radiation falling on it and emits the same amount of energy it absorbs stars and other objects which emit radiation are blackbody radiators blackbody curve (Plank curve) - represents the distribution of the intensity of radiation emitted by an object shifts towards higher frequencies and greater intensities as temperature increases used to determine the temperature of distant objects Wein's Law of Radiation - the wavelength at which a blackbody emits the greatest amount of radiation is inversely proportional to its temperature the hotter a star, the shorter the wavelength at which it emits its maximum radiation

11 Blackbody Spectrum Stefan-Boltzmann Radiation Law - the total energy emitted by a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature Ex:a star 2 times as hot as our sun will radiate 2 4 or 16 times as much energy as our sun D. Doppler Effect doppler shift - any motion induced change in the observed frequency of a wave redshift - relative motion away from the source causes a shift to lower frequencies (longer wavelengths) blueshift - relative motion towards the source causes a shift to higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths) speed of objects is determined by how much the source of light is red or blue shifted E. Spectral Analysis spectroscope - instrument used to split radiation into its component wavelengths continuous spectrum - a spectrum with light of all wavelengths radiation is produced by a blackbody radiator (hot, dense object) Blue light = short wavelength Red light = long wavelength emission spectrum - a spectrum produced by a hot gas consisting of only a few bright lines representing elements within the hot gas every element has its own unique "fingerprint"

12 Spectral Analysis absorption spectrum - a dark line spectrum produced when passing radiation through a cool gas dark lines appear in exactly the same frequencies for each element as in emission spectrum usually used as a spectrum plot the dips in the plot appear as dark lines on the spectrum astronomers analyze spectra to determine the temperature of stars certain atoms (dark lines) appear in the spectrum of stars at specific temperatures lines ("fingerprint") in spectra can be red or blue shifted can determine whether object is moving towards or away from the observer STATIONARY MOVING AWAY MOVING TOWARD IV. Telescopes A. Telescope Basics telescope - an instrument used to collect light from distant objects size of telescope objective determines how faint an object can be seen objective - size of the main lens or mirror that collect light the larger the objective, the more light it can collect and the fainter the object that can be seen all professional astronomers use very large telescopes angular resolution - the ability of a telescope to distinguish between light sources very close together limited by diffraction - the tendency of light to bend around corners causes stars to look "fuzzy" seeing - describes the effect of atmospheric turbulence atmospheric turbulence causes stars to "twinkle" causes star images to become "smeared out" or look fuzzy

13 B. Types of Telescopes Reflecting Telescope - uses a curved primary mirror to gather and concentrate light all light rays converge to a single point focus focal length - distance between the primary mirror and the focus reflecting telescopes use a secondary mirror to reflect light 90 to the side of the telescope image is magnified at the focus with a lens - eyepiece Advantages of the Reflecting Telescope: can be built very large - mirror can be supported from its back surface mirror only has 1 surface to polish relatively inexpensive Refractor Telescope - uses a lens to focus incoming light refraction - light is bent as it passes through one medium to another (air to glass) Advantages of the Refractor Telescope: can produce very sharp, esthetically pleasing images in small telescopes little/no maintenance required Disadvantages of the Reflecting Telescope: has a central obstruction (secondary mirror in the light path) which causes a small loss of light to the focal plane mirrors must be kept dust free mirrors need recoating after only a few years must be collimated (aligned) often Disadvantages of the Refractor Telescope: cannot be made very large chromatic aberration - lens does not focus the different wavelengths of light to the same focus point - blue light is refracted more than red light causes images to look colorful and not sharp in simple lenses expensive to make a color free (apochromatic) refractor telescope more than one surface to polish

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