The History and Philosophy of Astronomy
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1 Astronomy 350L (Fall 2006) The History and Philosophy of Astronomy (Lecture 3: Antiquity I) Instructor: Volker Bromm TA: Jarrett Johnson The University of Texas at Austin
2 Astronomy and Cosmology in Antiquity: Two Threads of Thought Mainstream (orthodoxy) Antiquity I (Sep. 7) - Plato, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Hipparchus, Ptolemy - Two-sphere-universe - Earth-centered (geocentric) - Planetary motion: in circles, deferent-epicycle Dissent (heterodoxy) Antiquity II (Sep. 12) - Pythagoras, Democritus, Epicurus, Stoics, Aristarchus - Democritus (atomism) and Aristarchus (Sun-centered) - close to modern world view - but forgotten (suppressed) for 1,400 years
3 Ancient Greece: The Birth of Science 6 th cent. BC: Use geometry to address celestial motions
4 Observing the Sky: The Basic Facts (all with the naked eye!) Earth is a Sphere Daily motion of celestial sphere (stars) Stars don t change their relative positions Annual motion of Sun with respect to stars Moon s motion w.r.t. to fixed stars Planets motion w.r.t. to fixed stars weird
5 Spherical shape of the Earth Ships at sea Lunar eclipse: earth s shadow circular Traveler s Tales (e.g., recorded by Herodotus)
6 Size of the Spherical Earth Use geometry and common sense Eratosthenes (3 rd cent. BC, Alexandria) -7 o = 800 km -360 o = 40,000 km
7 Daily motion of the stars No change in relative positions fixed stars
8 Daily motion of the stars: Looks different in different directions! Due East Due North - Circumpolar stars Due South
9 Q: How to explain daily stellar motion??? Celestial sphere (contains fixed stars) Celestial equator Local Horizon (every observer A: The Ancient Two-sphere-universe! has own one!)
10 Quick reminder: Why does concept of celestial sphere work (from our present-day perspective)?
11 Ancient Two-sphere-universe: - Plato s philosophy demands that universe is spherical! Plato (4 th cent. BC) Timaeus: Theory of the cosmos (and its creation)
12 Plato s philosophy demands that universe is spherical! Q: How so? Divine craftsman (Demiurge) (William Blake, ) Realm of Ideas Realm of Experience
13 Plato s philosophy demands that all natural motion is uniform along circles! Divine craftsman (Demiurge) (William Blake, ) Realm of Ideas Realm of Experience Uniform, circular motion
14 Ancient Two-sphere-universe: - Next Q: What is rotating? Earth or Sphere of Fixed Stars??? Hypothesis: The Earth? - actually proposed by Heracleides of Pontus (4 th cent. BC) - that obviously can explain observations (and we now know that it is true) But: Why was this (correct) hypothesis rejected and rediscovered only ~2,000 years later?
15 Ancient Two-sphere-universe: Q: Why was rotating-earth hypothesis rejected? A: - Theory of motion (terrestrial physics Aristotle) - Common-sense (naïve expectation) Stone/arrow Observer Greeks argued: Stone would be left behind if Earth rotated! (Think about why this argument is wrong!)
16 Q: How do we know that Earth rotates? A: Foucault s pendulum (1851)!
17 Ancient Two-sphere-universe: - Q: What is rotating? Earth or Sphere of Fixed Stars??? Greek s (incorrect) Answer: The Celestial Sphere! Q: How could they have gotten this so wrong? 1. Conforms to naïve experience 2. Elegantly explains many observations 3. Backed up by Aristotle greatest authority for 2,000 years (`The Philosopher )
18 Two-sphere-universe + stationary Earth: Nicely accommodates annual solar motion! Sun moves w.r.t. fixed stars along ecliptic!
19 Two-sphere-universe + stationary Earth: Nicely accommodates annual solar motion! Sun moves along ecliptic once a year!
20 Two-sphere-universe + stationary Earth: Nicely accommodates annual solar motion!
21 Plato s Grand Challenge: How do planetary motions fit in? Retrograde motion of planets, opposite direction to daily motion (E-W) of celestial sphere
22 Plato s Grand Challenge: How do planetary motions fit in? First taken up by his pupil Eudoxus founder of Greek mathematical astronomy Theory of homocentric spheres (all spheres have same Center)
23 Plato s Grand Challenge: How do planetary motions fit in? First taken up by his pupil Eudoxus founder of Greek mathematical astronomy Theory of homocentric spheres (all spheres have same Center) A many-sphere universe! How to establish the order of spheres? - Order of planets (Earth, Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars ) - What object is in the center?
24 Ancient Two-sphere-universe: - Part of Aristotle s all-embracing, coherent worldview! Aristotle (4 th cent. BC) Plato s disciple, Alexander s teacher `The Philosopher - Supreme intellectual authority - Unchallenged till Renaissance
25 The Aristotelian Universe: Earth is in center! Planets, including Sun, move around earth, affixed to crystal spheres The Universe is finite, has edge Two distinct regions of the cosmos: (1) The Heavens (supralunar) - perfect, no change, circular motions (2) Terrestrial (sublunar) - change (turmoil), non-circular motions
26 Reminder: How do we know that Earth moves? from our modern (heliocentric) perspective Not observed (too small) until 1838 (Bessel)!
27 The Aristotelian Universe:
28 The Aristotelian Universe: A coherent framework of all of nature Astronomical concepts tied up with terrestrial physics (theory of motion) Theory of gravity depends on Earth being in center of the universe! Finite universe, bounded by spherical edge There cannot exist a vacuum (plenum theory) Cosmos is eternal, guaranteed by spherical motion
29 The Aristotelian universe: Qualitative, but it is not precise as far as planetary motion is concerned Greeks before Alexander the Great ( BC) did not care much about observations Fundamental change in history of astronomy in the wake of Alexander s conquest (Hellenistic Age)
30 The Hellenistic Age: Alexander s conquest
31 The Hellenistic Age: Alexander s conquest Greece (before Alexander): - Science and philosophy - Disregard for empirical facts (observations) Babylon / Egypt: - No Science and philosophy - Wealth of data (observations) Birth of Hellenistic Astronomy: - Quantitative, precision-driven - based in Alexandria (Great library) - Hipparchus, Eratosthenes, Ptolemy
32 The Great Library in Alexandria
33 Hipparchus (2 nd cent. BC): Precession of the Equinoxes slow movement (~26,000 yrs) of CE-ecliptic intersection
34 The Ptolemaic System: - Aristotelian, but dominated by mathematical precision! Ptolemy (2 nd cent. AD) One of greatest astronomers of antiquity `Almagest (150 AD)
35 Ptolemy s Almagest (Arabic), or Syntaxis:
36 The Ptolemaic System: Circles within circles (deferent/epicycle) Designed to precisely explain planetary motions
37 The Ptolemaic System: Basic Building Blocks a) deferent/epicycle b) eccentric c) equant E = Earth P = Planet Q = Equant point C = Center (of universe)
38 The Ptolemaic System: The Equant point Planet s motion does not look uniform from Earth But it does look uniform from equant point!
39 The Ptolemaic System: Proliferating complexity! But it never quite worked! - it remained patchwork - more and more complicated (Copernicus monster)
40 The Ptolemaic System: Ptolemaic-Aristotelian universe completely dominated astronomical thought for 14 centuries (till Renaissance/Copernicus) Why was this (wrong) system so long-lived? - intricate connection to Aristotelian philosophy - it was very successful in explaining data - during Middle Ages adopted by Catholic Church as dogma (see trial of Galileo) But it never quite worked! - it remained patchwork - more and more complicated (Copernicus monster)
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