THE SOLAR CHROMOSPHERE AND CORONA: QUIET SUN
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1 THE SOLAR CHROMOSPHERE AND CORONA: QUIET SUN
2 ASTROPHYSICS AND SPACE SCIENCE LIBRARY A SERIES OF BOOKS ON THE RECENT DEVELOPMENTS OF SPACE SCIENCE AND OF GENERAL GEOPHYSICS AND ASTROPHYSICS PUBLISHED IN CONNECTION WITH THE JOURNAL SPACE SCIENCE REVIEWS Editorial Board J. E. BLAMONT, Laboratoire d'aeronomie, Verrieres, France R. L. F. BOYD, University College, London, England L. GOLDBERG, Kilt Peak Natio1/flIObservatory, Tucson, Ariz., U.S.A. C. DE JAGER, University of Utrecht, Holland z. KOPAL, University of Manchester, Manchester, England G. H. LUDWIG, NOAA, National Environmental Satellite Service, Suitland, Md., U.S.A. R. L list, Max-Planck-Institut fiir Physik und Astrophysik, Garching-Miinchen. Germany B. M. MCCORMAC, Lockheed Palo Alto Research Laboratory, Palo Alto, Calif.. U.S.A. H. E. NEWELL, NASA, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. L. I. SEDOV, Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., Moscow, U.S.S.R. Z. SVESTKA, American Science and Engineering, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. VOLUME 53
3 R. GRANT ATHAY High Altitude Observatory, National Center for Atmospheric Research (sponsored by the National Science Foundation) THE SOLAR CHROMOSPHERE AND CORONA: QUIET SUN D. REIDEL PUBLISHING COMPANY DORDRECHT-HOLLAND / BOSTON-U.S.A.
4 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Athay, R. Grant. The solar chromosphere and corona: Quiet Sun (Astrophysics and space science library; 53) Bibliography: p. I. Solar chromosphere. 2. Sun - Corona. I. Title. II. Series. QB528.A ' ISBN-13: e-isbn-13: DOl: / Published by D. Reidel Publishing Company, P.O. Box 17, Dordrecht, Holland Sold and distributed in the U.S.A., Canada and Mexico by D. Reidel Publishing Company, Inc. Lincoln Building, 160 Old Derby Street, Hingham, Mass , U.S.A. All Rights Reserved Copyright 1976 by D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1976 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any informational storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner
5 TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE XI CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 1. Chromospheres and Coronas 1 2. Goals for Solar Physics 4 3. Chromosphere and Coronal Boundaries 7 4. Methods of Observation The K- and F-Coronas Comments on Discrete Geometrical Features Depths of Line Formation 20 CHAPTER II. STRUCTURAL FEATURES Observational Methods The Photospheric Structure Chromospheric Network Chromospheric Fine Structure on the Disk Spicule Structure Transition Region Structure Non-Spherical Modeling Chromospheric Active Region Structure Observations of Coronal Structures Fine Structure of Inner Corona Coronal Streamers Coronal Rays and Plumes Coronal Disk Structures and Coronal Holes Prominences Solar Cycle Effects 97 CHAPTER III. MACROSCOPIC MOTIONS Measuring Systematic Motions Photospheric Motions 103 A. Wave Frequency 106 B. Phase Relations 109 C. Velocity Amplitude and Cell Size 1l0 D. Discussion 112
6 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS 3. Chromospheric Motions 114 A. Spicules and Fibrils 114 B. Cell Bright Points 116 C. Chromospheric Oscillations 118 D. Doppler Broadening of Chromospheric Lines Small Scale Coronal Motions Coronal Expansion: The Solar Wind Prominence Motions Impulsive Motions Mass Balance-and Energy Transport in Mass Flow 132 CHAPTER IV. MAGNETIC FIELDS Method of Observation Energy Considerations Polar Fields and UM Regions Evolution of Large Scale Fields Structure and Evolution of Small Scale Fields Coronal Magnetic Fields 163 CHAPTER V. SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS Visual and Near Infrared Disk Visual and Near Infrared limb 172 A. Chromospheric Eclipse Data 172 B. Chromospheric limb Outside of Eclipse 184 C. Coronal Eclipse Data 191 D. Coronal Limb Data Outside of Eclipse Infrared, Radio and XUV Continuum Data 199 A. Infrared and Radio Data 199 B. XUVData XUV Emission Lines 206 CHAPTER VI. ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR SPECTROSCOPIC DATA Scattering Continuum 220 A. Electron Scattering 220 B. Rayleigh Scattering Bound-Free Continua: Effectively Thin Case 221 A. H- 221 B. Balmer and Paschen Bound-Free Continua 223 C. Helium Bound-Free Continua Free-Free Continua Total line Intensities: Effectively Thin Case 228 A. Two-Level Atom 228 B. Three-Level Atom 236
7 TABLE OF CONTENTS VII 5. Profiles of lines and Bound-Free Continua: Effectively Thick Case 240 A. A Form of the Line Transfer Equation for Non-Coherent Scattering 240 B. Solution of the Pseudo Line Transfer Equation 250 C. The Influence of a Chromosphere 253 D. Multilevel Effects 260 E. Lines Formed by Coherent Scattering and Bound-Free Continua 266 CHAPTER VII. EMPIRICAL CHROMOSPHERIC AND CORONAL MODELS Summary Models Conditions at the Optical Limb The Temperature Minimum Region 280 A. Radiation Losses 280 B. Empirical Determination of T min The Low Chromosphere The Middle Chromosphere 292 A. General Comments 292 B. Visual Continuum 292 C. Lyman Continuum 295 D. Spectral lines on the Disk 297 E. Helium Lines The High Chromosphere 303 A. Mean Spherically Symmetric Model 303 B. Spicule Models 306 C. Spectral Line Intensities The Chromosphere-Corona Transition Region The Corona 328 A. Density Models 329 B. Ionization Temperature C. line Width Temperatures D. line Intensity Ratios E. Radio Temperatures F. Temperature Distribution CHAPTER VIII. CHROMOSPHERIC STRUCTURE INFERRED FROM SPECTRAL LINES Chromospheres and Coronas as Phenomena of Stellar Atmospheres Influence of the Chromospheric Temperature Rise Influence of the Chromospheric Increase in Doppler Width Ca II lines Mg II lines Neutral Metal lines 370
8 VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS 7. Hydrogen Lines C II and 0 I Lines Summary 381 CHAPTER IX. ENERGY AND MOMENTUM BALANCE Energy Balance Radiation Loss Rates Thermal Stability Coronal Energy Loss by Thermal Conduction and Evaporation Energy Balance Within the Transition Region The Base of the Transition Region The Effect of Motions Energy Losses from the Chromosphere 410 A. Upper Chromosphere 410 B. Middle Chromosphere 411 C. Low Chromosphere and T min Region The Quiet Sun Solar Wind 424 A. An Inconsistency of Hydrostatic Equilibrium 424 B. Isothermal and Polytropic Expansion 425 C. ExpanSion Combined with Thermal Conduction 427 D. Two-Fluid Models 431 E. Evaporative Models 433 F. The Observational Solar Wind Spicule Mechanisms 437 A. Summary of Spicule Characteristics 437 B. Summary of Theoretical Models 440 C. Shock Wave Models 443 D. Jets Driven by Gas Pressure 444 E. Jets Driven by a Combination of Gas Pressure and Hydrodynamic Forces 444 F. Jets Driven by Radiation Pressure 447 G. Magnetically Driven Spicules 449 CHAPTER X. WAVE GENERATION AND HEATING Wave Generation 454 A. Expected Wave Modes 454 B. Wave Equations 457 C. Acoustic-Gravity Waves 461 D. Magneto-Acoustic Waves 464 E. Magneto-Acoustic-Gravity Waves Interpretation of 5 Minute Oscillations 471 A. Location of Waves in k i w, Plane 471 B. Models for 5 Minute Oscillations 476
9 TABLE OF CONTENTS IX 3. Generation of Waves by the Convection Zone 479 A. Convective Overshoot 479 B. Over stability 480 C. Convective Compression Heating 489 A. Chromospheric Models 491 B. Transition Region and Coronal Models Acoustic Production of Stellar Chromospheres and Coronas 496 INDEX 503
10 PREFACE The widespread tendency in solar physics to divide the solar atmosphere into separate layers and to distinguish phenomena of solar activity from phenomena of the quiet Sun emphasizes the wide ranging diversity of physical conditions and events occurring in the solar atmosphere. This diversity spans the range from a neutral, essentially quiescent atmosphere to a highly ionized, violently convective atmosphere; from a domain in which magnetic field effects are unimportant to a domain in which the magnetic pressure exceeds the gas pressure, and from a domain in which the particle motions are Maxwellian to a domain in which an appreciable fraction of the particles is accelerated to relativistic energies. It is now widely recognized that the chromosphere and corona have a common origin in the mechanical energy flux generated in the hydrogen convection zone lying beneath the photosphere. Furthermore, magnetic field phenomena appear to be as vital to the structure of th~ quiet Sun as to the active Sun. For these reasons it appears desirable to present a unified treatment of the entire solar atmosphere, both active and quiet, in a single volume. On the other hand, such a treatise must be very long if it is to avoid being superficial, and it is very difficult for a single author to write authoritatively on such a wide range of topics. In the present volume, I have elected to treat the quiet Sun phenomena of the chromosphere and corona as a unified topic in order to emphasize their common origin and the common problems they pose in terms of energy and momentum balance. The sharply different physical regimes occurring in the corona and the chromosphere are related to the response of the atmosphere to the mechanical energy input rather than to fundamentally different physical mechanisms of energy input. Recognition that this is the case represents one of the milestones in the history of solar physics. The most widely accepted explanation of the heating that takes place in the chromosphere and corona is through the dissipation of wave energy generated in the hydrogen convection zone. The generation of this wave energy, its relationship to magnetic field phenomena, its passage through the photosphere, its eventual dissipation in the chromosphere and corona, and the response of the chromosphere and corona to the wave energy each form major problems in solar physics which we are only now beginning to understand. These same problems are of major importance to our understanding of stellar atmospheres, and it is the author's hope that both stellar and solar astronomers will benefit from the discussion of these phenomena. R. GRANT ATHAY
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