Evaluation of influencing factors in Dual Energy X-ray imaging
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1 11th European Conference on Non-Destructive Testing (ECNDT 2014), October 6-10, 2014, Prague, Czech Republic Evaluation of influencing factors in Dual Energy X-ray imaging More Info at Open Access Database Alexander ENNEN 1, Markus FIRSCHING 1, Jörg MÜHLBAUER 1, Daniel BIERL 1, Michael SCHMITT 1, Virginia VOLAND 1 1 Fraunhofer Development Center X-ray Technology, Fürth, Germany Phone: , Fax: ; alexander.ennen@iis.fraunhofer.de, markus.firsching@iis.fraunhofer.de, jörg.mühlbauer@iis.fraunhofer.de, bierldl@iis.fraunhofer.de, michael.schmitt@iis.fraunhofer.de, virginia.voland@iis.fraunhofer Abstract Dual Energy X-ray imaging has proven to be a worthwhile method to acquire quantitative material characteristics from radiographic images and computed tomography (CT) scans. In contrast to conventional X- ray imaging it provides quantitative information (e.g. the areal density) about the scanned material. Fraunhofer EZRT s Dual Energy technique provides the areal density of two given materials, which are necessary a-priori information. Although this technique is performed on radioscopic data it can also be used to process Dual Energy computed tomography (CT) data. For Dual Energy CT measurements, there is a wide variety of influences that may reduce the precision of the calculated results (areal density of the previously chosen materials), as for example, the scattering of X-rays (detector internal scattering and object scattering) or the inherent filtering of the X-ray source. To evaluate the influence of these factors on the precision of the responding areal density measurement tasks are presented and discussed. Keywords: material separation, image processing, Dual Energy X-ray imaging, material characterization, radiographic testing, computed tomography 1. Introduction Dual Energy X-ray imaging is a technique that allows obtaining additional quantitative information on material properties as density or effective atomic number (Z), which are not available from standard radiographs. Dual Energy techniques have been known since the mid- 70 s [1] and are established in medical imaging and security applications like airport security and customs inspection, but have not been commonly used in non-destructive testing (NDT) yet. Dual Energy measurements rely on two images acquired at different spectral settings. In opposition to distinguishing materials by their X-ray attenuation only, dual energy methods make it possible to differentiate materials independently of the irradiated thickness or if attenuation alone will not be sufficient for recognition. As it is applied to radiographic images, it can also be used for computed tomography applications by simple reconstructing of the generated areal density images. Typical applications include, but are not limited to, imaging situations that provide relatively low contrast between different materials in the conventional image or where quantitative information is required. It has been proved to successfully determine the bromine content of plastics [2] and to detect diamonds enclosed in kimberlite (the host ore of diamonds) [3]. 2. Motivation The Fraunhofer EZRT Dual Energy algorithm has been applied to certain industrial tasks like sorting [4] or recycling with great success but is not limited to those fields of applications. However all recent applications have in common that they use line based sensors in combination with strong collimation to achieve high precision material separation. For CT measurements however the use of flat panel detectors is desirable in order to achieve lesser measurement times.
2 In order to apply the method to CT datasets and even more material separation tasks, certain influencing factors for the precision of the dual energy algorithm have to be evaluated. Since our algorithm calculates the areal density for corresponding materials, we need to evaluate the factors based on their impact on these results. First of all the influence of X-ray scattering has to be evaluated. While materials with higher effective atomic numbers (Z > 30) cause problems on dual energy algorithms on their own, the need for higher X-ray energy to perform measurements on this specimen further increases X-ray scattering. The increased scattering on the other hand decreases image quality and lessen the precision of the algorithm even further. The quantification of the extent of this factor is one of the objectives of this contribution. Additionally the inherent filtering of the X-ray source leads to spatial dependencies on the calculation of the areal density. This is influenced by the angle of the X-ray target, the target material and the used X-ray spectrum. This problem arises especially while using flat panel detectors where it can be observed as diverged resulting areal densities for different vertical detector positions. In addition the method is well tested and approved for materials with low effective atomic numbers but it is not tested widely for the separation of materials with high effective atomic numbers yet. In general high absorbing materials provide a lot of challenges for dual energy methods and algorithms [5]. The quantification of inaccuracies in the calculation for these materials and the influence of scattering on the corresponding results are addressed as well. To deduce feasible improvements for the precision of the calculation the above mentioned influences have to be characterized and weighted. The results of the measurement campaign are presented and discussed in this contribution. 3. Dual Energy Method The possibility to derive physical quantities from X-ray images is based on the fact that the total attenuation coefficient is based on the irradiated material as well as on the energy of the used X-ray photons. When performing multiple measurements of the same object at different spectral parameters, information based on the irradiated material is obtainable. In principle the Fraunhofer EZRT dual Energy algorithm is able to derive the areal density ρ on two materials, which has to be selected prior to the evaluation, from those dual energy measurements in an object, were only these two materials are present. Based on the calculated areal density for a single material it is possible to calculate the concentration of this material within a compound of different materials [6]. Following Lambert-Beer s Law the attenuated intensity after an object can be described as = exp( ) (1) where µ is the attenuation coefficient, α the areal density, and I 0 represents the non-attenuated intensity. For the radiation of multiple materials superimposing each other, the attenuation coefficient sums up. When performing multiple measurements at different spectral parameters a set of similar equations is created, which represent the extinction of the same material composition at different energies. = exp ( ) (2)
3 where k indexes different energies and j being the index of the material. Note that this approach condenses all effects participating in the attenuation of X-rays which includes Compton scattering and photo-electric absorption. For non-monochromatic sources the signal measured by the detector can be described using the spectral detector efficiency D(E) and the used spectra S(E). = () () (3) This detector efficiencies and spectra have to be known upfront for this attempt. Since it is impracticable to evaluate these data from actual measurements, simulated data is used to fulfill this purpose. Following equation (2) the attenuated intensity after an object can be ascertained as: = exp( () )()() (4) With known spectra S(E) and known detector efficiencies D(E) is it possible to determine the areal densities α j for upfront chosen materials. Applying this attempt for two materials leads to two integral equations with two unknowns. Those can be solved under certain conditions and lead to two areal densities of two respective basis materials. 4. Measurement setup To evaluate the influence of certain factors different measurement approaches have been performed in order to quantify them mostly isolated. To ascertain basic applicability of line detectors and flat panel detectors we applied all measurements and calculations on representatives of both kinds. In order to evaluate the influence of X-ray scattering we performed measurements under drastic collimation as well as entirely non-collimated. To limit the influence of object scattering to a minimum the X-ray fan beam got collimated. This approach minimizes the influence of object scattering but doesn t take detector internal scattering into account and alters the spectral traits of the used X-ray spectra. The measurements were performed on a focus object distance (FOD) of 1000 mm and 25 mm respectively. All measurements were performed at a fixed focus-detector-distance of 1050 mm. While positioning the object close to the X-ray source reduces the influence of object scattering, positioning the specimen close to the detector comprises the object scattering to a high proportion and is expected to decrease the accuracy of the calculated areal densities. X-ray collimation was ensured with two different approaches. A horizontal and vertical collimator compounded of lead and copper was used to collimate the X-ray beam in front of the object. Additionally, we installed a horizontal collimator built of lead behind the object to reduce the influence of scattering. To ensure a wide variety of use cases these studies were performed for a set of different materials and therewith different effective atomic numbers. The specimens used for these measurements must have a very high degree of purity to be valid and reliable data for comparison of the results. In order to suffice this specification all used specimens achieve a level of purity of at least 99.75%. To compare the calculated areal density of the materials to the responding density the actual density for all specimens was calculated previously by measuring their volume and weight. All specimens used in these measurements are cylindrical.
4 To perform the measurement tasks a Comet MXR-225 X-ray source with a focal spot size of 1 mm and a total power maximum of 1800 Watts was used. We used a Perkin Elmer XRD 0820 CN14 detector with 200 µm pixel pitch as a flat panel detector and used a dual energy Detection Technology DT XScan 0.8iL 40 DE USB C3 with a pixel pitch of 800 µm as line detector. For dual energy measurements using the flat panel detector, two subsequent image acquisition need to be performed at different spectral settings, i.e. different source voltage and/or prefiltering. However, the dual energy line detector has two energy channels and is able to acquire such two images at the same time. As a consequence, they are acquired at the same source voltage using a different internal filter configuration. Depending on detector and material under investigation, different X-ray spectra were used, varying kv and filtration. For the flat panel detector a combination of the following spectra were used: 80 kv with 1 mm aluminum filter in combination with 140 kv and 0.68 mm copper for light materials (e.g. graphite, acrylic glass and aluminum) and a spectra combination of 200 kv using 2 mm aluminum filtering combined with 220 kv using 6 mm copper filtering for materials of higher atomic number (e.g. copper and tin). For the dual energy line detector, 180 kv with 0.25 mm titanium filter were used for the light materials graphite, plastic and aluminum, and for the high Z materials copper and tin, 220 kv with 0.25 mm titanium filter. 5. Results To compare the results created by the measurements and described in chapter 4, the resulting areal density of all materials was calculated on the central position of the detector in order to avoid the inherent filtering of the X-ray source. By measurement of the specimens diameter the resulting density for each material was calculated and compared to the upfront ascertained values in order to appraise the accuracy of the method Flat panel detector results Table 1: Calculated densities for different materials using the flat panel detector on different measurement approaches. Grey fields display the measurement approach with the best result. Specimen Name Z Ø [mm] ρ (calculated) highest magnification lowest magnification Graphite 6 26,7 1,60 1,49 1,25 1,59 1,37 Acrylic 6,5 30,0 1,19 1,14 1,11 1,06 1,03 glass Aluminum 13 22,0 2,70 2,71 2,56 2,25 2,06 Aluminum 13 6,0 2,70 2,58 2,53 2,51 2,33 Copper 29 3,2 8,41 5,81 4,84 6,12 5,56 Tin 50 2,0 7,29 3,45 3,01 2,25 1,95
5 Table 1 displays the results for the measurement campaign using the flat panel detector. While the results are rather accurate for materials of lower atomic numbers (e.g. carbon, acryl and aluminum) the quality of the results decreases rapidly for higher atomic numbers. This may have multiple reasons: - Increasing X-ray scattering reduces the overall quality of the measurement. This is especially true for dual energy algorithms because of the deducing of quantitative values from these measurements. X-ray scattering could misleadingly lead to a higher accuracy of the calculated density by influencing the measured signal. This would indicate correct values without a trustworthy measurement technique. - While dual energy algorithms are based on the segregation of Compton scattering and the photo-electric effect, the usage of higher energies aggravates the search for spectral parameters which differentiate both effects. - While collimated measurements consistently provide more precise density values than non-collimated measurements the influence of detector internal scattering increases with to the used X-ray energy. As these results indicate, the method does only provide limited validity on measurements with higher energies and higher effective atomic numbers. Even for low energy scans on materials with lower effective atomic numbers the precision varies in a non-deterministic way for noncollimated measurements. Additionally the measured areal density and the corresponding calculated density seems to be undervalued in general Dual Energy line detector results Table 2: Calculated densities for different materials using the line detector on different measurement approaches. As already mentioned in Table 1, grey values indicate the best result. Specimen Name Z Ø [mm ] ρ (calculated) highest magnification lowest magnification Graphite 6 26,7 1,60 1,61 1,25 1,58 1,72 Acrylic 6,5 30,0 1,19 1,22 1,13 1,24 1,46 glass Aluminum 13 22,0 2,70 2,73 2,73 2,5 3,02 Aluminum 13 6,0 2,70 2,66 2,66 2,85 3,21 Copper 29 3,2 8,41 6,70 5,10 7,01 5,75 Tin 50 2,0 7,29 3,42 3,15 3,2 3,08 The results displayed in table 2 confirm the results already determined by the measurements performed with the flat panel detector in table 1. The best results are received are gathered from vigorously collimated attempts at maximal magnification (i.e. large object-detectordistance). However, a second interesting observation can be derived from these
6 measurements: Unexpectedly the line detector seems to be more sensitive to non-collimated measurements most notably for low energy scans at low magnification than the flat panel detector. In contrast to the results created from the flat panel detector measurements, the calculated results using the line detector seems to overestimating the corresponding density. As expected the overall accuracy for the measured density increases slightly in relation to the measurements using a flat panel detector. There are a couple of suppositions for this: - The line detector should suffer less from detector internal scattering in comparison to the flat panel detector. - The measurement setup using a line detector allows for even closer collimation and therefore enables us to handle X-ray scattering more efficiently. 6. Summary and Conclusion It could be shown that dual energy X-ray imaging can be used as a quantitative method to determine the areal density (and the density in case the thickness is known) of an object of known material. For low Z materials with Z 13, the accuracy can be within a few percent. However, the accuracy degrades massively for high Z materials and higher X-ray energies. As the discussed results demonstrate, X-ray scattering is a major influencing factor for dual energy measurements. As expected, this is especially true for high energy measurements. But even the calculations of measurements performed at relatively low energies suffer noticeable from the influence of X-ray scattering. Specifically, this means that all measurements performed for material characterization via dual energy methods have to take X-ray scattering into account to allow for reliable and precise results. 7. Outlook As indicated by these results, scattering plays a major role when using quantitative dual energy methods. It strongly influences the accuracy that can be reached. Another possible source for inaccuracy is the heel effect in the X-ray tube, leading to changes of the emitted X- ray spectrum with respect to the angle to the anode. For known anode and setup geometry, it should be possible to estimate the change of the spectrum. In order to minimize the influence of X-ray scattering the usage of anti-scatter grids will be evaluated to achieve a more practicable measuring approach for CT scans, where collimation is not possible for practical reasons. The preferred setup would lack the actual need for collimation or even an anti-scatter grid as setting this up would be device and application specific and therefore increase complexity of the entire setup. To accomplish a hardware independent solution, different X-ray scattering correction approaches including deconvolution approaches are currently under investigation. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank all colleagues that contributed valuable portions to this contribution. Special thanks for all their participation goes to: Frank Nachtrab, Thorsten Wörlein, Stefan Reisinger, Juri Makarov and Torsten Brandmüller.
7 References 1. R. Alvarez, A. Macovski, Energy Selective Reconstructions in X-ray Computerized Tomography, Phys. Med. Biol. Vol. 21, No. 5 (1976), M.Firsching, J. Mühlbauer, A. Ennen, F. Nachtrab, Dual Energy X-ray Imaging for Computed Tomography and Sorting Applications, 1 st International Conference on Tomography of Materials and Structures, Ghent, Belgium, M. Firsching, F. Nachtrab, J. Mühlbauer, N. Uhlmann, Detection of Enclosed Diamonds using Dual Energy X-ray imaging, 18th World Conference on Nondestructive Testing, April 2012, Durban, South Africa 4. J. Mühlbauer, M. Firsching, A. Ennen, S. Reisinger, K. Vieth, Diamond Detection Capability of Dual Energy X-ray Imaging, Conference of Sensor-Based Sorting, March, 2014, Aachen, Germany 5. B. J., Heismann, J. Leppert, and K. Stierstorfer, Density and atomic number measurements with spectral x-ray attenuation method, J. Appl. Phys. 3, (2003). 6. M. Firsching, F. Nachtrab, N. Uhlmann, & R. Hanke. Multi Energy X ray Imaging as a Quantitative Method for Materials Characterization. Advanced Materials, 23(22 23), (2011).
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