Outline. Planetary Atmospheres. General Comments about the Atmospheres of Terrestrial Planets. General Comments, continued
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1 Outline Planetary Atmospheres Chapter 10 General comments about terrestrial planet atmospheres Atmospheric structure & the generic atmosphere Greenhouse effect Magnetosphere & the aurora Weather & climate Global wind patterns Clouds Long term climates Origin & evolution of the atmosphere How gases are lost General Comments about the Atmospheres of Terrestrial Planets Mercury - Very little atmosphere - Contents: vaporized micrometeorites, solar wind - Sky is black Venus - Very thick (10% density of water), dense atmosphere - Contents: Carbon dioxide with clouds of sulfuric acid - No violent storms - No rain on the planet surface General Comments, continued Mars - Air is thin - Contents: Carbon dioxide - Seasons like the Earth; planet-wide dust storms Earth - Contents: Molecular Nitrogen (N 2 ) & Oxygen (O 2 )
2 General Comments on Atmospheres Atmosphere: The layer of gases that surround a planet Gas Pressure: Pressure created by the collision of atoms & molecules in the air - Pressure becomes less at high altitudes - Thus, gas is more compressed at lower elevations - Hydrostatic equilibrium: balance between upward gas pressure & downward gravitational pressure Where does the Atmosphere End? There is no clear upper boundary Working definition: The altitude at which stars become visible Terrestrial atmospheres are very thin Atmospheric Structure Depends on the effects of Sunlight Depends on the contents of the Atmosphere - E.g., using the above definition, the Earth s atmosphere extends to 100 kilometers, less than 2% the Earth s radius
3 How does Sunlight Heat a Planet without an Atmosphere 1) Depends on distance from the Sun 2) Depends on the albedo (reflectivity) of the planet surface the higher the albedo, the less efficient the heating Albedo = 0 (no reflection) Albedo = 1 (all reflected) Albedo = 0.7 (cloud, snow, ice) Albedo = (rocks) How does Sunlight Heat a Planet without an Atmosphere 3) Depends on the speed of planetary rotation - Long Day (slow rotation) day side hot, night side cold - Short Day (fast rotation) day/night have similar temperatures Note: there must be a balance between the amount of light a planet absorbs & emits, or else the planet would rapidly heat up The Generic Atmosphere Two Key Points 1)Interaction between the gas & sunlight warms atmosphere 2)Different wavelengths of light are absorbed in different layers of the atmosphere Theoretical Actual Processes 1)Some gases (greenhouse gases) absorb infrared light very efficiently 2) Atmosphere is generally transparent to visible light, but can scatter a fraction of visible light 3)UV photons can break molecules such as Ozone apart 4)X-rays have enough energy to knock electrons free from atoms (ionization)
4 Generic Atmosphere Absorbed by the Surface Visible Light Shorter wavelength light is easier to scatter than longer wavelength light The Greenhouse Effect Greenhouse Effect: The process by which greenhouse gases in an atmosphere make a planet s surface temperature warmer than it would be in the absence of an atmosphere 1)Visible light is absorbed by the surface of a planet 2)Ground reradiates infrared photons 3)The infrared photons are absorbed by greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor) 4)Greenhouse gases reradiate infrared photons isotropically Where is this important: Troposphere, where the atmosphere is thick This warming process causes convection
5 UV & Stratosphere UV heating is important Temperature increases with increasing altitude Stratosphere is stagnant Stratosphere exists if there are molecules efficient at absorbing UV photons (Ozone) X-rays & Thermosphere Exosphere Upper atmosphere heated by X-rays Gas is primarily ions & free electrons High temperature, low density gas Space Shuttle & artificial satellites orbit the Earth in the exospheric layer Drag effects minor but important
6 Magnetosphere Magnetosphere & Aurora Aurora Strength of the aurora is correlated with solar activity
7 Weather & Climate Weather: Ever-varying combination of winds, clouds, & pressure Climate: Long-term average of weather over specific regions Seasons: Depends on tilt of planet s axis Winds Wind: Flow of air caused by pressure difference between different regions of a planet Global Wind Pattern: Wind pattern fixed on a global scale - Venus: none - Mars & Earth: 25 o and 23.5 o, respectively - Note: For Mars, its non-circular orbit also has an effect What effects Global Wind Patterns? What effects Global Wind Patterns? 2) Planet Rotation: causes air moving on a planet to deviate from a straight line trajectory (coriolis effect) 1) Atmospheric Heating equator heated more than poles, creating convective circulation cells
8 Strength of Coriolis Effect depends on planet s size & rotation rate Venus: weak coriolis slow rotation Mars: weak coriolis small size & thin atmosphere doesn t transfer much heat Clouds Important resultant rain causes erosion Forms when one of the gases in the air condenses into liquid/solid form as a result of 1)convection 2)air ascending mountain side Once droplets grow so large that convection cannot hold them up against gravity, precipitation occurs Thus, strong convection more clouds & precipitation Clouds on Different Planets - Earth: water - Venus: Sulfuric Acid (H 2 SO 4 ) & water droplets Long-Term Climates: Causes 1) Changing Brightness of the Sun 2) Changing tilt of planet s axis Ice Age? 3) Change in Albedo ice age (temperature ) volcanic eruptions (temperature ) smog (temperature ) deforestation (temperature ) Human Influence black roads (temperature ) 4) Varying atmospheric conditions Abundance of greenhouse gases
9 Origin & Evolution of Atmosphere Outgassing volcanoes expel water, carbon dioxide, molecular nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide Evaporation/Sublimation important for Mars Bombardment important for Mercury & the Moon How are gases lost? 1) Thermal Escape atoms/ molecules moving fast enough to escape the pull of gravity escape velocity: the speed a particle must travel at to escape the pull of gravity temperature: the higher the temperature, the higher the velocity mass of particle: for a fixed temperature, more massive particles move slower than less massive ones Losing gases (cont) 2) Bombardment: gives kinetic energy (speed) to atmospheric atoms & molecules & breaks heavier molecules into lighter atoms 3) Atmospheric cratering via large impacts is important on small worlds 4) Condensation via cooling is important for Mars & polar craters of the Moon and Mercury 5) Chemical Reactions: air combining with rocks Losing gases (cont) Kinetic Energy = Thermal Energy (Mass)(velocity) 2 k (Temperature)
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