2. Identify the nuclear process that occurs when lighter elements in a star combine to form heavier elements, producing the star's radiant energy.

Transcription

1 Base your answers to questions 1 through 4 on the flowchart below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The flowchart represents possible pathways in the evolution of stars. 1. Circle the relative surface temperature and relative luminosity of the main sequence star Sirius compared with the surface temperature and luminosity of the Sun. 2. Identify the nuclear process that occurs when lighter elements in a star combine to form heavier elements, producing the star's radiant energy. 3. State the name of one star labeled on the Characteristics of Stars graph in the Earth Science Reference Tables that may become either a black hole or neutron star 4. Based on this flowchart, identify the characteristic of a main sequence star that determines whether the star becomes a giant or a supergiant.

2 Base your answers to questions 5 through 7 on the graph below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The graph shows the percentage of the lighted portion of the Moon that is visible to an observer in New York State through eight consecutive Moon phases. 5. The diagram below represents the appearance of the Moon at phase 3 as seen by an observer in New York State. In the circle, shade the part of the Moon that appears dark to an observer in New York State when the Moon is at phase 7.

3 6. On the diagram, place an X on the Moon's orbit to represent the Moon's position at phase The phases of the Moon are said to be waxing when the lighted portion of the Moon gradually increases over time. Identify the numbered phase of the Moon when waxing begins and the numbered phase when waxing ends. Base your answers to questions 8 through 10 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents Earth as viewed from above the North Pole. The nighttime side of Earth and the Moon have been shaded. The Moon is represented in eight positions in its orbit around Earth. 8. Explain how the Moon's rotation and revolution cause the same side of the Moon to always face Earth.

4 9. The photographs below show the changing appearance of the Moon as viewed from New York State during three consecutive Moon phases. In the space below each photograph, identify the number of the Moon position that matches each of these phases. 10. Identify by number the Moon's position where a solar eclipse might be observed from Earth. Base your answers to questions 11 through 13 on the star chart below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The star chart shows the approximate locations of the Big Dipper, Little Dipper, and Cassiopeia visible in the night sky from Syracuse, New York, at a particular time of night. The dots represent individual stars. During the night, these stars appear to move counterclockwise around the star in the center of the chart. Straight lines are at 15-degree intervals. The stars Caph, Kochab, and Merak are labeled. 11. Identify the Earth motion that causes the apparent counterclockwise movement of these stars.

5 12. On the star chart, place an X to indicate the location of the star Merak after five hours have passed. 13. On the star chart, circle the dot that represents the star Polaris. Base your answers to questions 14 through 16 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents a planetary system, discovered in 2013, with seven exoplanets (planets that orbit a star other than our Sun) labeled b through h orbiting a star. The exoplanet orbits are represented with solid lines. For comparison, the orbits of three planets of our solar system are shown with dashed lines. The sizes of the star, exoplanets, and planets are not drawn to scale. 14. Identify the letter of the exoplanet with the shortest period of revolution and explain why that exoplanet has the shortest period of revolution. 15. Indicate the classification of the three solar system planets shown in the diagram as either terrestrial or Jovian. Describe one characteristic of this type of planet that distinguishes it from the other type of planet. 16. Identify the name of the planet represented in the diagram that has the most eccentric orbit.

6 Base your answers to questions 17 through 20 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents the Moon's orbit around Earth as viewed from space above Earth's North Pole (NP). Letter A represents one position of the Moon in its orbit. 17. Describe the actual shape of the Moon's orbit. 18. On the diagram below, shade the portion of the Moon that is in darkness as viewed from New York State when the Moon is at position A. 19. State the number of days that it takes the Moon to orbit Earth once. 20. On the diagram above, place an X on the Moon's orbit to indicate the position of the Moon when a solar eclipse would be observed from Earth.

7 Base your answers to questions 21 and 22 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents a view of Earth from above the North Pole, showing longitude lines at 15 degree intervals. Letters A and B represent surface locations on the equator. 21. State the time at location A when it is noon at location B. Indicate a.m. or p.m. in your answer. 22. Identify one date represented by this diagram. Base your answers to questions 23 through 26 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents a model of the expanding universe. 23. Identify the nuclear process that combines lighter elements into heavier elements to produce the energy radiated by stars.

8 24. Identify the force that caused stars and planets in the universe to become layered according to density differences in their composition. 25. Identify one piece of evidence that led astronomers to infer that the universe is expanding. 26. Identify the name of the event that is inferred by scientists to have occurred when the universe first formed. Base your answers to questions 27 and 28 on the data table below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The data show the rate of change in the apparent direction of the swing of a Foucault pendulum at various latitudes on Earth, in degrees per hour. 27. The Coriolis force results from the same motion that causes the Foucault pendulum to change its apparent direction of swing. The diagram below represents the relative strength of the Coriolis force acting on air moving over Earth's surface. Describe how the strength of the Coriolis force changes with latitude.

9 28. On the grid, plot the hourly change in a Foucault pendulum's apparent direction of swing at the latitudes shown on the data table. Connect the plots with a line.

10 Base your answers to questions 29 through 31 on the graph and on your knowledge of Earth science. The graph shows planet equatorial diameters and planet mean distances from the Sun. Neptune is not shown. 29. Compared to the periods of revolution and periods of rotation of the terrestrial planets, how are the periods of revolution and periods of rotation for the Jovian planets different? Jovian periods of revolution: Jovian periods of rotation:

11 30. The diagram in your answer booklet represents Earth drawn to a scale of 1 cm = 2000 km. Centimeter markings along the equatorial diameter of Earth are also shown on the diagram. On the diagram, shade in the space between the centimeter markings to represent the equatorial diameter of Earth's Moon at this same scale. 31. Place an X on the graph to indicate where Neptune would be plotted, based on its mean distance from the Sun and its equatorial diameter.

12 Base your answers to questions 32 through 35 on the diagram and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents the Moon at four positions, A through D, in its orbit around Earth as viewed from above the North Pole (NP). The shaded parts of the Moon and Earth represent darkness. The Moon phase shown below was seen by an observer in New York State. 32. Identify the celestial object in our solar system that has a period of rotation that is most similar to the period of rotation of Earth's Moon. 33. Describe the effect on the heights of Earth's high and low tides when the Moon moves from position D to position A. 34. Calculate the number of days from the Moon phase at position C to the Moon phase at position A as seen from Earth. 35. On the diagram above, place an X on the Moon's orbit to indicate the Moon's position when this phase was observed.

13 Base your answers to questions 36 through 38 on the data table below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The data table shows five galaxies, A through E, their distances from Earth, and their recession velocities, the velocities at which they are moving away from Earth. 36. Identify the nuclear process that produces the energy released by stars within these galaxies. 37. Another galaxy has a recession velocity of 30,000 kilometers per second. What is this galaxy's approximate distance from Earth in million light years if it follows the same pattern shown on the data table? 38. State the general relationship between the galaxies' distances from Earth and their recession velocities. Base your answers to questions 39 through 42 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents the Moon in eight positions in its orbit around Earth. One position is labeled A. 39. Explain why the Moon's revolution and rotation cause the same side of the Moon to always face Earth. 40. State the number of days needed for the Moon to show a complete cycle of phases from one full Moon to the next full Moon when viewed from New York State.

14 41. The diagram below represents one phase of the Moon as observed from New York State. On the diagram below, place an X on the Moon's orbit to represent the Moon's position when this phase was observed. 42. On the diagram above, circle the type of eclipse that may occur when the Moon is at position A. Explain why this type of eclipse may occur when the Moon is at this position. Base your answers to questions 43 through 45 on the data table below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The data table lists four constellations in which star clusters are seen from Earth. A star cluster is a group of stars near each other in space. Stars in the same cluster move at the same velocity. The length of the arrows in the table represents the amount of redshift of two wavelengths of visible light emitted by these star clusters. 43. Identify the name of the nuclear process that is primarily responsible for producing energy in stars. 44. Write the chemical symbol for the element, shown in the table, that absorbs the two wavelengths of light.

15 45. Describe the evidence shown by the light from these star clusters that indicates that these clusters are moving away from Earth. Base your answers to questions 46 through 48 on the data table below, which shows the length of a shadow, in centimeters, made by an object at different times during the day in New York State. 46. Toward which compass direction from the object does the shadow point at solar noon? 47. Explain what causes the length of the shadow to change during the day. 48. Predict the length of the object's shadow at 2:30 p.m.

16 Base your answers to questions 49 through 53 on the data table below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The table shows the distance from Earth to the Moon for certain days during December The percent of the Moon illuminated by the Sun as seen from Earth is also given. 49. A lunar eclipse occurred during December On which date did this eclipse most likely occur? 50. Identify one date during December 2010 when the Moon was at its mean distance from Earth as indicated on the Earth Science Reference Tables. 51. On which data shown in the data table was the gravitational attraction between the Moon and Earth the greatest? 52. Explain how the Earth-Moon distance data support the inference that the Moon's orbit is an ellipse.

17 53. On the grid, the Earth-Moon distance data from December 2 to December 12 have already been plotted. Complete the line graph by plotting the Earth-Moon distances from December 14 to December 30. Continue the line from December 12 through all nine of your plotted points.

18 Base your answers to questions 54 through 56 on the diagrams and tables below and on your knowledge of Earth science. Each diagram represents the Moon's orbital position and each table lists times of high and low tides and tide heights, in meters, at New York City for the date shown. 54. On the diagram, place an X on the Moon's orbit to represent the location of the Moon on May 28.

19 55. On the diagram, shade the portion of the Moon that is in darkness to observers in New York City on May Determine the length of time between the two high tides shown for May 13. Base your answers to questions 57 and 58 on the diagram below, which represents an exaggerated model of the shape of Earth's orbit, and on your knowledge of Earth science. The positions of Earth in its orbit on December 21 and June 21 are indicated. The positions of perihelion (when Earth is closest to the Sun) and aphelion (when Earth is farthest from the Sun) are also indicated. Both perihelion and aphelion occur approximately two weeks after the dates shown. 57. Explain why warm summer temperatures occur in New York State when Earth is at aphelion. 58. How many months after Earth's perihelion position does Earth's aphelion position occur?

20 Base your answers to questions 59 through 62 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents a time-exposure photograph taken by aiming a camera at Polaris in the night sky and leaving the shutter open for a period of time to record star trails. The angular arcs (star trails) show the apparent motions of some stars. 59. Record, to the nearest whole degree, the altitude of Polaris when it is viewed from the top of New York State's Mt. Marcy. 60. The diagram below represents Earth as viewed from space. The dashed line indicates Earth's axis. Some latitudes are labeled. On the diagram, draw an arrow that points from the North Pole toward Polaris. 61. Determine the number of hours it took to record the star trails labeled on the diagram. 62. Identify the motion of Earth that causes these stars to appear to move in a circular path.

21 Base your answers to questions 63 through 66 on the Characteristics of Stars graph below and on your knowledge of Earth science. 63. Describe how the relative surface temperature and the relative luminosity of Aldebaran would change if it collapses and becomes a white dwarf like Procyon B. 64. Describe one characteristic of the star Spica that causes it to have a greater luminosity than Barnard's Star. 65. Identify two stars from the Characteristics of Stars graph that are at the same life-cycle stage as the Sun. 66. The star Canopus has a surface temperature of 7400 K and a luminosity (relative to the Sun) of Use an X to plot the position of Canopus on the graph above, based on its surface temperature and luminosity.

22 Base your answers to questions 67 through 71 on the passage and data table below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The data table shows the apparent hourly change in the direction of a pendulum's swing, in degrees per hour ( /h), for six different Northern Hemisphere latitudes. Foucault's Pendulum In 1851, Jean-Bernard-Léon Foucault attached a heavy iron ball to a steel wire hanging from the high ceiling of a church in Paris to demonstrate an apparent motion caused by Earth's rotation. This pendulum could swing freely back and forth. A spike on the bottom of Foucault's pendulum produced straight lines in sand spread on the floor. The position of each new line appeared to gradually shift in a clockwise direction. Eventually, the pendulum returned to its original path, completing a 360 pattern in approximately 32 hours. At other northern latitudes, a Foucault pendulum will complete a 360 pattern of swing in different amounts of time. In the Northern Hemisphere, the number of degrees that a pendulum appears to change its clockwise direction of swing each hour varies with latitude.

23 67. The diagram below represents a swinging pendulum located in Earth's Northern Hemisphere. The pendulum knocked over two pegs during its first swing. The diagram represents a top view of the same pegs. Circle the next two pegs that would fall as the pendulum appears to change its direction of swing in the Northern Hemisphere. 68. Identify one location on Earth where the apparent direction of a pendulum's swing would complete a 360 circular pattern in 24 hours. 69. Based on the data table, state the approximate apparent rate of change in the direction of a pendulum's swing, in degrees per hour, at Riverhead, New York. 70. Based on the data table, state the relationship between latitude and the apparent rate of change in a Foucault pendulum's direction of swing.

24 71. On the grid below, plot the apparent rate of change in a Foucault pendulum's direction of swing for each of the latitudes given in the data table. Connect the plots with a line. Base your answers to questions 72 through 74 on the graph below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The graph shows the average daily heights above or below sea level of high and low tides from April 15 to May 15, for a New York State location. Five Moon phases are indicated at the dates on which they occurred. 72. Infer the date when the next first-quarter Moon phase occurred.

25 73. On the diagram,circle the two numbers on Earth's surface that best represent the locations of high tide when the Moon is in the position shown on the diagram. 74. On the diagram below, place an X on the Moon's orbit to indicate the Moon's position on April 15.

26 Base your answers to questions 75 through 79 on the side-view model of the solar system in your answer booklet and on your knowledge of Earth science. The planets are shown in their relative order of distance from the Sun. Letter A indicates one of the planets. 75. Identify the process that occurs within the Sun that converts mass into large amounts of energy. 76. Calculate how many times larger the equatorial diameter of the Sun is than the equatorial diameter of Venus. 77. How many million years ago did Earth and the solar system form? 78. State the period of rotation at the equator of planet A. Label your answer with the correct units. 79. The center of the asteroid belt is approximately 503 million kilometers from the Sun. Draw an X on the model between two planets to indicate the center of the asteroid belt.

27 Base your answers to questions 80 through 82 on the data table below and on the graph in your answer booklet and on your knowledge of Earth science. The data table lists the number of daylight hours for a location at 50 N on the 21st day of each month for 1 year. The graph shows the number of daylight hours on the 21st day of each month for a location at 70 N and for the equator, Predict the number of daylight hours that occur at 70 S on June Explain why the number of daylight hours for all three latitudes was 12 hours on March 21 and September 21.

28 82. On the graph, plot the number of daylight hours for the 21st day of each month listed on the data table. Connect all of your plotted data with a line.

29 Base your answers to questions 83 through 85 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents a model of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Arrows represent two motions of Earth. Distances from the center of the Sun to the center of Earth are indicated in kilometers. Earth is represented when it is closest to the Sun and when it is farthest from the Sun. 83. The diagram represents Earth at one position in its orbit around the Sun. Starting at the North Pole, draw a straight arrow that points to the location of Polaris. 84. How many degrees is Earth's axis tilted to a line perpendicular to the plane of Earth's orbit? 85. On the diagram, place an X on Earth's orbit at one location where Earth's Northern Hemisphere is in winter.

30 Base your answers to questions 86 and 87 on the flowchart below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The flowchart shows the evolution of stars. 86. Describe how the diameter and luminosity of a main sequence star change as the star becomes either a giant or a supergiant. 87. Identify the force responsible for the contraction of a nebula (a gas cloud of molecules) to form a protostar. Base your answers to questions 88 and 89 on the diagram in below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents the star patterns of the Big Dipper and the Little Dipper relative to Earth's horizon. Dashed vertical reference lines are shown for four of the stars. Polaris is labeled. 88. Record, to the nearest whole degree, the altitude of Polaris if these constellations were observed from Slide Mountain in New York State. 89. On the diagram, place an X at a point on the horizon line to indicate due north.

31 Base your answers to questions 90 through 93 on the table below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The table provides information about sunlight received on four dates of a certain year. Letter A represents a date. The arrows indicate the Sun's direct rays. 90. Explain why the Sun's direct rays are at different latitudes as Earth revolves around the Sun. 91. State the number of daylight hours occurring north of the Arctic Circle on June State the numerical latitude at which the Sun is directly overhead at noon on December 21. Include the units and compass direction in your answer. 93. Identify one possible date represented by letter A.

32 Base your answers to questions 94 and 95 on the graph below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The graph shows the changes in ocean tide height at a New York State location during 1 day. 94. Explain why the Moon has a greater influence on Earth tides than the Sun. 95. Determine the tide height and time of day for the lowest tide shown on the graph. Include a.m. or p.m. in your answer for the time of day

33 Base your answers to questions 96 through 98 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents the present position of our solar system in a side view of the Milky Way Galaxy. The distance across the Milky Way Galaxy is measured in light-years. 96. List the following astronomical features, in order of relative size, from smallest to largest. Sun Jupiter Milky Way Galaxy Universe Our solar system 97. Galaxies are classified based on their shape. What is the shape of the Milky Way Galaxy when viewed from directly above? 98. What is the distance, in light-years, from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy to our solar system?

34 Base your answers to questions 99 through 101 on the diagram in your answer booklet and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents the orbits of Earth, Venus, and Mercury. Earth, Venus, and Mercury are shown with a dot on each of their orbital paths. The numbers on each orbital path indicate the planet's positions on successive days in its revolution. Point M is a position on Earth's orbit. Each season in the Northern Hemisphere on Earth is labeled. 99. What latitude on Earth receives the vertical rays from the Sun when Earth is at position M? 100. Approximately how many revolutions does Mercury make around the Sun during one Earth year? 101. On the diagram place an X on each planet's orbital path to show the positions of Earth, Venus, and Mercury on the 55th day of each planet's orbit.

35 Base your answers to questions 102 through 104 on the diagram in your answer booklet and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram is a model of the sky (celestial sphere) for an observer at 50 N latitude. The Sun's apparent path on June 21 is shown. Point A is a position along the Sun's apparent path. Angular distances above the horizon are indicated Describe the general relationship between the length of the Sun's apparent path and the duration of daylight The Sun travels 45 in its apparent path between the noon position and point A. Identify the time when the Sun is at point A. Include a.m. or p.m. with your answer On the celestial sphere diagram place an X on the Sun's apparent path on June 21 to show the Sun's position when the observer's shadow would be the longest.

36 Base your answers to questions 105 through 107 on the sky model below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The model shows the Sun's apparent path through the sky as seen by an observer in the Northern Hemisphere on June Identify the cause of the apparent daily motion of the Sun through the sky The diagram represents the position of Earth in its orbit on March 21. Place an X on Earth's orbit to represent Earth's orbital position when the apparent path of the Sun in the sky model was observed Describe the evidence, shown in the sky model, which indicates that the observer is not located at the North Pole.

37 Base your answers to questions 108 through 111 on the table below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The table lists the average surface temperature, in kelvins, and the average orbital velocity, in kilometers per second, of each planet of our solar system The orbital velocity of Earth is sometimes faster and sometimes slower than its average orbital velocity. Explain why the orbital velocity of Earth varies in a cyclic pattern.

38 109. Use the set of axes below to draw a line that represents the general relationship between the mean distances of planets from the Sun and the average orbital velocities of the planets Approximately 97% of Venus's atmosphere is carbon dioxide. Describe how carbon dioxide contributes to the unusually high average surface temperature of Venus On the grid, construct a bar graph to represent the average surface temperature for each planet. Base your answers to questions 112 through 114 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth Science. The diagram represents the Sun's apparent path on the equinoxes and the longest and shortest days of the year for a location in New York State. Points X, Y, and Z represent the solar noon positions along daily Sun paths X, Y, and Z State the rate, in degrees per hour, that the Sun appears to travel along path X from sunrise to sunset State one possible date of the year represented by each apparent path of the Sun Draw one arrow in each box on path Z to indicate the Sun's apparent direction of movement along path Z.

39 Base your answers to questions 115 through 119 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth Science. The diagram represents the Moon at eight numbered positions in its orbit around Earth. The nighttime sides of the Moon and Earth are shaded Explain how the Moon's rotation and revolution cause the same side of the Moon to always face Earth Explain why the Moon's orbital velocity is slowest when the Moon is farthest from Earth State the numbered position of the Moon that could result in a lunar eclipse State the number of days the Moon takes to go through one complete cycle of Moon phases from full Moon to full Moon as viewed from Earth The photograph below shows a phase of the Moon as observed from New York State. State the numbered position at which the Moon was located when the photograph was taken.

40 Base your answers to questions 120 through 122 on the passage and data table below, which describe the exploration and characteristics of one of Saturn's moons, Titan. Huygens Probe Lands on Titan The Huygens probe was carried to Saturn by the Cassini spacecraft and parachuted to the surface of Saturn's giant moon, Titan. The Huygens probe's landing site was littered with smooth, rounded, rocklike objects. Photographs taken of Titan's surface show drainage channels leading to an apparent shoreline. The question is, what are they draining? One of the photographs seems to show ground fog consisting not of water, but perhaps of ethane or methane Identify the planet with a density closest to the density of Titan Approximately how many times farther is Titan from Saturn than Earth's Moon is from Earth? 122. What natural process occurring on Earth produces smooth, rounded rocks similar to those found at the probe's landing site on Titan?

41 Base your answers to questions 123 through 127 on the diagram below, which represents eight positions of the Moon in its orbit around Earth The table below shows times of ocean tides on March 4 for a city on the Atlantic coast of the United States. Determine the time when the next low tide occurred. Include a.m. or p.m. in your answer, if needed Explain why the Moon's gravity has a greater effect on Earth's ocean tides than the Sun's gravity Using the terms rotation and revolution, explain why the same side of the Moon always faces Earth On the diagram, shade the portion of the Moon that is in darkness to show the phase of the Moon at position 3, as viewed from New York State.

42 127. On the diagram, circle the position of the Moon where a solar eclipse is possible. Base your answers to questions 128 through 130 on the diagram below, which shows Earth as viewed from space on December 21. Some latitudes are labeled At which latitude is Polaris observed at an altitude of 66.5? 129. State one factor, other than the tilt of Earth's axis, that causes seasons to change on Earth On the diagram, place an X at a location on Earth's surface where the Sun was directly overhead at some time on December 21.

43 Base your answers to questions 131 through 135 on the diagram in your answer booklet. The diagram shows Earth revolving around the Sun. Letters A, B, C, and D represent Earth's location in its orbit on the first day of the four seasons. Aphelion (farthest distance from the Sun) and perihelion (closest distance to the Sun) are labeled to show the approximate times when they occur in Earth's orbit Explain why an observer in New York State sees some different constellations in the night sky when Earth is at location A compared to when Earth is at location C Explain why the gravitational attraction between the Sun and Earth decreases as Earth travels from location D to location A Approximately how many days does it take Earth to travel from location B to location C? 134. On the diagram, draw an arrow on Earth at location D to show the direction of Earth's rotation. Extend the arrow from one side of Earth to the other side of Earth On the diagram, draw a line through Earth at location A to represent Earth's tilted axis on the first day of summer in the Northern Hemisphere. Label the North Pole end of the axis.

44 Base your answers to questions 136 through 138 on the bar graph below and on the data table in your answer booklet. The bar graph shows the number of partial lunar eclipses that occurred during each of the last nine centuries (100-year intervals) on Earth. A partial lunar eclipse occurs when only part of the Moon is within the darkest part of Earth's shadow. The data table in your answer booklet shows the number of total lunar eclipses that occurred during the same nine centuries. A total lunar eclipse occurs when the entire Moon is completely within the darkest part of Earth's shadow.]

45 136. On the diagram below, draw an X so the center of the X indicates the position of Earth during a lunar eclipse State the relationship between the number of partial lunar eclipses per century and the number of total lunar eclipses per century.

46 138. On the grid, construct a bar graph of the number of total lunar eclipses for each 100-year interval listed on the data table in your answer booklet Meteorite Composition Meteors that strike Earth's surface are called meteorites. Analysis of meteorite composition has provided scientists with information regarding the formation of Earth and our solar system, and possibly the development and evolution of life on Earth. Two types of meteorites are iron meteorites and chondrites. Iron meteorites consist mostly of iron and nickel, and are inferred to be from core materials of early planetary bodies in our solar system. More than 60% of meteorites studied have been identified as chondrites. Chondrites are made of millimeter-sized spheres of olivine and pyroxene crystals embedded in a mass of mineral and metal grains. The chondrites are thought to represent fragments of the earliest solid materials in our solar system. One type of chondrite, the carbonaceous chondrite, contains water, organic compounds, and minerals that represent the chemical composition necessary for life to form. Explain why there is little evidence of meteorite impact craters on Earth. Base your answers to questions 140 through 142 on the passage below. Meteorite Composition Meteors that strike Earth's surface are called meteorites. Analysis of meteorite composition has provided scientists with information regarding the formation of Earth and our solar system, and possibly the development and evolution of life on Earth. Two types of meteorites are iron meteorites and chondrites. Iron meteorites consist mostly of iron and nickel, and are inferred to be from core materials of early planetary bodies in our solar system. More than 60% of meteorites studied have been identified as chondrites. Chondrites are made of millimeter-sized spheres of olivine and pyroxene crystals embedded in a mass of mineral and metal grains. The chondrites are thought to represent fragments of the earliest solid materials in our solar system. One type of chondrite, the carbonaceous chondrite, contains water, organic compounds, and minerals that represent the chemical composition necessary for life to form What is the estimated age, in years, of Earth and our solar system? 141. Identify two elements that can be found in both olivine and pyroxene Identify the type of meteorite that is inferred to have a composition similar to the composition of Earth's core.

47 Base your answers to questions 143 through 148 on the calendar and data table below. The calendar shows the month of February 2007, indicating the dates when some lunar phases occurred. February 24 lists only the name of the Moon phase that occurred on that day. The data table shows the highest and lowest tides (in feet) recorded for the Hudson River at Kingston, New York, over a 2-day period in February 2007.

48 143. Determine the altitude of Polaris at Kingston, New York, to the nearest degree In the circle below, shade the part of the Moon that appeared dark to an observer in New York State on February State the date of the next full Moon that occurred after February 2.

49 146. On the diagram below, draw a small circle (O) on the Moon's orbit to show the position of the Moon in its orbit on February Predict the time of the first high tide on Sunday, February 4. Include a.m. or p.m. in your answer On the grid above, plot the tide height for each time of day listed in the data table. Connect the plots with a line.

50 Base your answers to questions 149 through 151 on the diagram of the Sun, Earth, and the constellation Sagittarius shown below. Positions A through D show Earth in its orbit around the Sun on the first day of each season. Sagittarius is represented in its position in space relative to Earth's orbit The diagram below shows the yearly range of altitudes of the noontime Sun as seen by an observer in New York State. Write the letters for each of the four Earth positions, A, B, C, and D, in the Sun circles on this diagram to identify when the observer will see the Sun at these noontime altitudes in New York State. More than one letter may be written in a circle How many hours of daylight will an observer in New York State experience when Earth is at position C? 151. At which lettered position does Sagittarius appear highest in the sky at midnight to observers near Earth's equator?

51 Base your answers to questions 152 through 155 on the diagram below, which shows the Moon at position 1 in its orbit around Earth. Numbers 2 through 8 represent other positions in the Moon's orbit Identify one numbered orbital position where the gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun cause Earth to experience the highest high tides How many days does it take the Moon to go from one full-moon phase to the next full-moon phase when viewed from Earth? days 154. A solar eclipse could occur when the Moon is located at which numbered position? 155. On the diagram below, shade the portion of the Moon that is in darkness as viewed from New York State when the Moon is at position 1.

52 Base your answers to questions 156 through 160 on the table below, which lists some information about Barnard's Star If a planet with the same mass as Earth were discovered orbiting Barnard's Star at the same distance that Earth is orbiting the Sun, why would there be less gravitational attraction between this new planet and Barnard's Star than there is between Earth and the Sun? 157. List Barnard's Star, the Sun, and the universe in order by age from oldest to youngest Compared to the surface temperature and luminosity of the Sun, describe the relative surface temperature and the relative luminosity of Barnard's Star The distance from point A to point S on the line belowrepresents the equatorial diameter of the Sun. On this line, place a point labeled B at the correct scale distance from point A to represent the equatorial diameter of Barnard's Star The diagram below shows four spectral lines produced by glowing hydrogen gas in a laboratory and four spectral lines produced by hydrogen gas as seen in the light from Barnard's Star. Explain why the positions of the spectral lines of Barnard's Star are all shifted toward the blue end of the spectrum.

53 Base your answers to questions 161 and 162 on the diagram below, which shows the locations of high and low tides on Earth at a particular time Approximately how many hours will pass between high tide and the following low tide? 162. Identify the force that causes ocean tides on Earth. Base your answers to questions 163 through 165 on the table below, which shows information about five large objects in the Kuiper Belt. The Kuiper Belt is located approximately 30 to 1000 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun. An astronomical unit is the average distance between Earth and the Sun, million kilometers Identify the Kuiper Belt object with the longest period of revolution and state the evidence that supports that conclusion. Object: Evidence:

54 164. On the graph, construct a bar graph of the equatorial diameter of each of the Kuiper Belt objects listed in the table. The diameter of Earth's Moon has been graphed for comparison The diagram shows the orbits of some of the planets in our solar system. The approximate average distances from the Sun, in astronomical units, are indicated. On the diagram, place an X to show the closest distance of Ixion to the Sun.

55 Base your answers to questions 166 through 171 on the star chart below, which shows the locations of several constellations visible in the night sky. These constellations appear to move counterclockwise around the star in the center of the chart. Straight lines are at 15-degree intervals. Merak and Dubhe are two stars in the Big Dipper On the chart of the night sky, place an X to indicate the location of the Big Dipper at the same time of night 6 months later The stars Merak and Dubhe are located within the same galaxy as our Sun. Identify the galaxy in which these stars are located.

56 168. Complete the table belowby identifying the classification of the star Dubhe. The classification for the star Merak has been provided as an example Which Earth motion causes the apparent daily movement of these constellations? 170. How many degrees would the star directly below the "ss" in Cassiopeia appear to move in 3 hours? 171. Identify the star located in the center of this star chart. Base your answers to questions 172 through 174 on the diagram below, which shows one position of the Moon in its orbit around Earth. Letters W, X, Y, and Z are locations on Earth's surface What is the solar time at location Y? Include a.m. or p.m. in your answer Write "high" or "low" to indicate whether a high ocean tide or low ocean tide is occurring at locations W, X, Y, Z On the diagram of the Moon below, shade the part of the Moon that appears dark to an observer in New York State when the Moon is at the position shown in the diagram above.

57 Base your answers to questions 175 through 177 on the passage below. Extrasolar Planets Astronomers have discovered more than 400 planets outside of our solar system. The first extrasolar planet was detected in 1995 orbiting a star known as 51 Pegasi, which is similar in color and luminosity to our Sun. Astronomers can detect planets by identifying stars that move in response to the gravitational pull of planets revolving around them. Other planets have been discovered by finding stars whose luminosity varies as orbiting planets block outgoing starlight. Nearly all of these discovered planets are thought to be Jovian-like planets similar to Jupiter State the color and luminosity of 51 Pegasi Compared to Jupiter, state how Earth's equatorial diameter and density are different Other than Jupiter, identify one Jovian planet in our solar system. Base your answers to questions 178 and 179 on the graph below, which shows the distance from the Sun and the period of revolution for four planets in our solar system labeled A, B, C, and D Describe the relationship between the distance from the Sun and the period of revolution for these four planets State the name of each of the planets represented by A, B, C, and D.

58 Base your answers to questions 180 and 181 on the diagram below, which shows Earth's orbit and the orbit of a comet within our solar system Explain why the time required for one revolution of the comet is more than the time required for one revolution of Earth Explain how this comet's orbit illustrates the heliocentric model of our solar system.

59 Base your answers to questions 182 and 183 on the diagram below, which shows Earth's orbit around the Sun as viewed from space. Earth is shown at eight different positions labeled A through H. Earth's North Pole, Arctic Circle, and equator have been labeled at position C. The arrows show the direction of orbital motion Approximately how many days does Earth take to move from position A to position C? 183. Complete the data table below by placing the letter that represents the position of Earth at the start of each season in the Northern Hemisphere.

60 Base your answers to questions 184 through 187 on the diagram in your answer booklet, which shows the Moon's orbit around Earth Explain why lunar eclipses only occur when the Moon and the Sun are on opposite sides of Earth 185. How long does it take the Moon to complete one revolution around Earth? Express your answer to the nearest tenth of a day Explain why ocean tides are considered to be cyclic On the diagram above, place a small circle (o) on the Moon's orbit at the new-moon phase where none of the lighted portion of the Moon is visible from Earth.

61 Base your answers to questions 188 through 190 on the diagram in your answer booklet, which shows the relative diameter sizes of the planets compared to the radius of the Sun How many times larger is the diameter of the Sun than the diameter of Jupiter? 189. On the diagram above, place an X on the planet with the lowest density On the diagram above, circle only the terrestrial planets. Base your answers to questions 191 through 194 on the passage below. The Moon Is Moving Away While Earth's Rotation Slows Tides on Earth are primarily caused by the gravitational force of the Moon acting on Earth's surface. The Moon causes two tidal bulges to occur on Earth: the direct tidal bulge occurs on the side facing the Moon, and the indirect tidal bulge occurs on the opposite side of Earth. Since Earth rotates, the bulges are swept forward along Earth's surface. This advancing bulge helps pull the Moon forward in its orbit, resulting in a larger orbital radius. The Moon is actually getting farther away from Earth, at a rate of approximately 3.8 centimeters per year. The Moon's gravity is also pulling on the direct tidal bulge. This pulling on the bulge causes friction of ocean water against the ocean floor, slowing the rotation of Earth at a rate of second per 100 years Explain why the Moon has a greater influence than the Sun on Earth's tides In 100,00 years, the rotation of Earth will be slower by how many seconds? 193. Explain why the force of gravity between the Moon and Earth will decrease over time.

62 194. The diagram below shows the Moon and Earth in line with each other in space. On the diagram, place an X on Earth's surface to indicate where the direct tidal bulge is occurring. Base your answers to questions 195 through 198 on the diagrams below, which show the apparent path and solar noon positions of the Sun on specific dates at three different locations on Earth How many hours of daylight are seen by the observer at location C on June 21?

63 196. On the diagram below, draw a line representing the apparent path of the Sun at location B on August Explain why the observer's shadow at location B will always point northward at solar noon What evidence indicates that the observer at location A is at the equator? Base your answers to questions 199 through 201 on the data table below, which shows some galaxies, their distances from Earth, and the velocities at which they are moving away from Earth Another galaxy is traveling away from Earth at a velocity of 70 thousand kilometers per second. Estimate that galaxy's distance from Earth in million light-years State the general relationship between a galaxy's distance from Earth and the velocity at which the galaxy is moving away from Earth.

64 201. On the grid below, use an X to plot the distance and velocity for each galaxy from the data table to show the relationship between each galaxy's distance from Earth and the velocity at which it is moving away from Earth. Connect the Xs with a smooth line.

65 Base your answers to questions 202 and 203 on the data table below, which lists six stars, numbered 1 through 69 found in the constellation Taurus. The table shows the celestial coordinates for these six stars On the table below, complete the data table that provides additional information about two of the stars in Taurus.

66 203. On the grid below,use an X to plot the position of each of the six stars. Record the number of the plotted star beside each X and connect the Xs in the following order: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The first star, Zeta Tauri, has been plotted for you The diagram below shows the position of sunrise along the horizon for a period of time from September 10 until December 21, as seen by an observer near Binghamton, New York. State one reason why the position of sunrise changes during this time period.

67 Base your answers to questions 205 through 207 on the graph below, which shows the early formation of main sequence stars of different masses (M). The arrows represent temperature and luminosity changes as each star becomes part of the main sequence. The time, needed for each star to develop into a main sequence star is shown on the main sequence line Identify the force that causes the accumulation of matter that forms the stars Describe the change in luminosity of a star that has an original mass of 0.5 M as it progresses to a main sequence star Describe the relationship between the original mass of a star and the length of time necessary for it to become a main sequence star.

68 Base your answers to questions 208 through 210 on on the diagram below, which shows the parts of Earth experiencing daylight and darkness as Earth orbits the Sun. Letters A, B, C, D, and E are positions in Earth's orbit as viewed from above the Northern Hemisphere On the grid, place Xs to show the duration of insolation at the Arctic Circle (66.5 N) as Earth orbits the Sun at positions A, B, C, and D. Connect the Xs with a line Which season is the Northern Hemisphere experiencing when Earth is at position E? 210. Approximately how many days does it take Earth to move from position A to position C?

69 Base your answers to questions 211 through 213 on on the information below about a solar eclipse that will occur on August 21, The latitude and longitude coordinates for the movement of the center of the Moon's shadow across the Earth's surface are given in the table On the diagram below, place an X on the Moon's orbit to show the Moon's position during a solar eclipse The path of the Moon's shadow will be approximately 100 kilometers wide. On the graph now shade the area between positions 1 and 3 to show the width of the Moon's shadow on Earth.

70 213. On the graph below, plot with an X the path of the center of the Moon's shadow for each position given in the data table. Connect the Xs with a smooth, curved line. Shadow position number 1 has been plotted on the graph. Base your answers to questions 214 through 216 on on the passage below and on your knowledge of stars and galaxies. Stars Stars can be classified according to their properties, such as diameter, mass, luminosity, and temperature. Some stars are so large that the orbits of the planets in our solar system would easily fit inside them. Stars are grouped together in galaxies covering vast distances. Galaxies contain from 100 billion to over 300 billion stars. Astronomers have discovered billions of galaxies in the universe The star Betelgeuse is farther from Earth than the star Aldebaran. Explain why Betelgeuse appears brighter or more luminous than Aldebaran Complete the table by placing an X in the boxes that indicate the temperature and luminosity of each star compared to our Sun Arrange the terms galaxy, star, and universe in order from largest to smallest.

71 Base your answers to questions 217 through 219 on on the diagram below, which represents a model of Earth's orbit. Earth is closest to the Sun at one point in its orbit (perihelion) and farthest from the Sun at another point in its orbit (aphelion). The Sun and point B represent the foci of this orbit Describe how the shape of Earth's orbit would differ if the Sun and focus B were farther apart Describe the change that takes place in the gravitational attraction between Earth and the Sun as Earth moves from perihelion to aphelion and back to perihelion during one year Explain why Earth's orbit is considered to be elliptical.

72 Base your answers to questions 220 through 223 on the diagram below, which shows the heliocentric model of a part of our solar system. The planets closest to the Sun are shown. Point B is a location on Earth's equator Identify one feature of the geocentric model of our solar system that differs from the heliocentric model shown On the graph below, draw a line to show the general relationship between a planet's distance from the Sun and the planet's period of revolution Explain why location B experiences both day and night in a 24-hour period State the name of planet A.

73 Base your answers to questions 224 and 225 on the Luminosity and Temperature of Stars graph in the Earth Science Reference Tables In which group of stars would a star with a temperature of 5000 C and a luminosity of approximately 100 times that of the Sun be classified? 225. Describe the relationship between temperature and luminosity of main sequence stars. Base your answers to questions 226 through 228 on the diagram below, which shows the Moon at positions A through H in its orbit around Earth At which Moon position could a lunar eclipse occur? 227. How many days does it take for the Moon to complete one cycle of phases as viewed from Earth? 228. Which letters represent the two positions of the Moon when the least difference between the levels of high and low ocean tides occur on Earth? Base your answers to questions 229 through 231 on the passage below. Is Earth Gaining Weight? Scientists belive that Earth may gain more than 100 tons of dust from space every day. The dust comes from thawing comets as they orbit the Sun and from pieces of asteroids that collided with other asteroids. Most asteroids orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter. Each dust particle dates back to the days when our solar system was created. So in a way, each tiny speck of dust holds clues to how our solar system formed. All the space dust produced by comets and asteroids in our solar system is drawn to the Sun by its gravitational force. However, space dust that passes within about 60 miles of Earth's surface may be slowed enough by friction with Earth's atmosphere to be pulled to the surface by Earth's gravity Approximately how many million kilometers from the Sun are most asteroids located? 230. In which temperature zone of Earth's atmosphere is space dust first slowed enough by friction to be pulled to Earth's surface?

74 231. State one reason why more space dust is attracted to the Sun than to Earth. Base your answers to questions 232 through 235 on the data table below and on the graph. The data table shows the maximum altitude and phase of the Moon observed above the southern horizon on certain dates during January and February at a New York State location. The line on the graph shows the altitude of the noontime Sun observed during the same time period at the same New York State location Assuming that February had 28 days, on which date in March did the next full Moon occur? 233. The diagram shows the Moon's orbit around Earth. Place an X on the orbit to represent the Moon's position on February 18.

75 234. The multiple-exposure photograph below, taken on February 3, shows a total solar eclipse in the middle of the photograph. The maximum altitude of the Sun on this date was 34 above the southern horizon at this New York State location. Based on the data table, explain why this total solar eclipse occurred on February On the grid below, plot with an X the maximum altitude of the Moon for each date shown on the data table.

76 Base your answers to questions 236 through 238 on the data table below, which shows the average distance from the Sun, the average surface temperature, and the average orbital velocity for each planet in our solar system On the graph below, draw a line to indicate the general relationship between a planet's average distance from the Sun and its average orbital velocity Venus has an atmosphere composed mostly of carbon dioxide. Mercury has almost no atmosphere. Explain how the presence of the carbon dioxide in Venus' atmosphere causes the average surface temperature on Venus to be higher than the average surface temperature on Mercury State the relationship between the average distance from the Sun and the average surface temperature of the Jovian planets.

77 Base your answers to questions 239 and 240 on the diagram below, which represents the sky above an observer in Elmira, New York. Angular distances above the horizon are indicated. The Sun's apparent path for December 21 is shown On what date of the year does the maximum duration of insolation usually occur at Elmira? 240. On March 21, the altitude of the noon Sun in Elmira is 48. On the diagram above, draw the Sun's apparent path for March 21, as it would appear to the observer. Be sure your path begins and ends at the correct positions on the horizon and indicates the correct altitude of the noon Sun.

78 Base your answers to questions 241 through 245 on the passage and map below and the tide table. The map shows the tidal range (the difference between the highest and lowest tides) in meters for the Bay of Fundy, Chignecto Bay, and the Minas Basin. The table shows the times of high and low tides for Hopewell Cape for August 21 and 22, The Bay of Fundy has the Highest Tides on Earth The unique shape of the Bay of Fundy contributes to the extremely high ocean tides experienced there. Frequently described as funnel shaped, the bay gradually becomes more narrow and shallow to the northeast where it splits to form Chignecto Bay and the Minas Basin. The highest tides of the Bay of Fundy are found within these fingers of the bay and are caused by the incoming tides encountering seaward-moving river currents as the bay narrows. The tide height is also affected by the amount of time it takes for high tide to flood the bay. This time is nearly identical from one high tide to the next.

79 241. The diagram below shows the Moon's orbital path and Earth as viewed from space. The points on Earth indicate two locations where high ocean tides are occurring. Place an X on the Moon's orbital path to show where the Moon could be located when these high tides are produced.

80 242. The diagram below, shows an observer standing near a measuring stick at the 0-meter tide height location at Hopewell Cape. The diagram is drawn to a scale of 1 centimeter equals 2 meters. On the measuring stick, place an X to show the highest tide level shown on the tide table for August Using the tide table for Hopewell Cape, calculate the time difference between two consecutive high tides. Express your answer to the nearest minute.

81 244. On the grid below, plot with an X the height of the water for each time listed on the tide table. Connect the centers of the Xs with a smooth, curved line Describe two characteristics of the Bay of Fundy that cause the extremely high tides to occur at Hopewell Cape. Base your answers to questions 246 through 252 on the diagram below, which represents a model of the sky above a vertical post in New York State. The diagram shows the position of the Sun at solar noon on September 23 and the position of Polaris above the horizon On the diagram, on the JUNE 21st path, place an X where the Suns position would be at 3 PM.

82 247. Draw the path of the Sun on the diagram for June 21st.Be sure the path drawn includes the position on the horizon where the Sun rises, the correct altitude of the Noon Sun and the place on the horizon where the Sun sets At which latitude is this vertical post located? Include the unit and compass direction in your answer How many degrees will the Sun appear to move across the sky from 1 p.m. to 3 p.m. on June 2l? 250. Place an X on the diagram above to indicate the altitude of the Sun at solar noon on June On the diagram above, draw the shadow of the vertical post as it would appear at solar noon on September On the diagram above, draw the apparent path of the Sun across the sky on September 23 from sunrise to sunset. Base your answers to questions 253 through 255 on the star chart below, which shows part of the winter sky visible from New York State. Some of the brighter stars are labeled and the constellation Orion is outlined Explain why the constellation Orion is visible at night to an observer in New York State in December and January, but not in June and July.

83 254. In the space below, list the stars, other than Bellatrix, found on the chart in order of decreasing luminosity Identify the color of the star Bellatrix, which has a surface temperature of approximately 21,000 C.

84 Base your answers to questions 256 through 259 on the diagram below. Diagram 1 shows Earth's location in its orbit on the first day of each of the four seasons, labeled A through D. Diagram 2 shows a north polar view of Earth on March 21. Point E represents a location on Earth's surface. Longitude lines are shown at 15 intervals State the hour of the day at point E.

85 257. Describe one piece of evidence shown in the diagram which indicates that the Northern Hemisphere is experiencing winter at position D Explain why the duration of insolation is 12 hours at both the Artic Circle and the equator when Earth is at position C How does the altitude of the Sun at solar noon appear to change each day for an observer in New York State as Earth moves from position A to position B to position C? Base your answers to questions 260 and 261 on the data table below, which provides information about four of Jupiter's moons In 1610, Galileo was the first person to observe, with the aid of a telescope, these four moons orbiting Jupiter. Explain why Galileo's observation of this motion did not support the geocentric model of our solar system Identify the planet in our solar system that is closest in diameter to Callisto Complete the table by identifying the color and classification of the star Procyon B. The data for the Sun have been completed as an example.

86 Base your answers to questions 263 through 266 on diagram below, which shows Earth as viewed from above the North Pole. The nighttime side of Earth has been shaded. The Moon is shown at eight positions in its orbit around Earth. The name of each Moon phase is indicated at each Moon position. The dark portion of each Moon position has not been shaded Explain why the same side of the Moon always faces Earth Which Moon phase occurs approximately one week after the New Moon phase? 265. Explain what causes the Moon's phases when viewed from Earth On the diagram below, shade the portion of the Moon that is in darkness to show the last quarter phase as viewed from New York State.

87 Base your answers to questions 267 through 269 on the diagram below. The diagram shows the positions of Halley's Comet and Asteroid at various times in their orbits. Specific orbital positions are shown for certain years Explain why Halley's Comet is considered to be part of our solar system Determine which was traveling faster, Halley's Comet or the asteroid, between the years 1903 and State one reason for your choice The eccentricity of the asteroid's orbit is On the orbital diagram above, mark the position of the second focus of the asteroid's orbit by placing an X on the major axis at the proper location.

88 Base your answers to questions 270 through 272 on diagram below, which shows the inferred internal structure of the four terrestrial planets, drawn to scale Explain why the densities of these terrestrial planets are greater than the densities of the Jovian planets Identify the two planets that would allow an S-wave from a crustal quake to be transmitted through the core to the opposite side of the planet How are the crusts of Mars, Mercury, Venus, and Earth similar in composition?

89 273. The diagram above shows a view of the ground from directly above a flagpole in New York State at solar noon on a particular day of the year. The flagpole's shadow at solar noon is shown. Draw the position and relative length of the shadow that would be cast by this flagpole three hours later. Base your answers to questions 274 through 278 on the data table below, which shows the percentage of the lighted side of the Moon visible from Earth for the first fourteen days of July Why are the phases of the Moon considered to be cyclic?

90 275. The diagram below shows the orbit of the Moon around Earth. Place an X on the orbit to show where the Moon was in its orbit on July 14, A full Moon phase was observed on July 14. On what day in August was the next full Moon phase observed? 277. What motion of the Moon causes the percentage of the lighted side of the Moon visible from Earth to change from July 1 to July 14? 278. On what July date listed in the table did the Moon appear as shown below?

91 Base your answers to questions 279 through 282 on the graph below, which shows two conditions responsible for the formation and composition of some planets in our solar system. The distances of Earth and Neptune from the Sun, in astronomical units (AU), are shown beneath the horizontal axis. (1 AU = million kilometers). The plotted line on this graph shows the relationship between a planet's distance from the Sun and the inferred temperature at its formation. The regions within the graph indicate the composition of planets formed within these zones What is Jupiter's distance from the Sun, in astronomical units? Express your answer to the nearest tenth. AU 280. State the relationship between a planet's distance from the Sun and the temperature at which that planet formed Saturn is located 9.5 AU from the Sun. State the approximate temperature at which Saturn formed. K 282. According to the graph, Neptune was mainly composed of which material at the time of its formation?

92 Base your answers to questions 283 through 285 on the passage below. Asteroids Most known asteroids are found orbiting the Sun approximately halfway between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, in a vast ring known as the Asteroid Belt. Occasionally, though, an asteroid leaves this orbit belt and moves into a more eccentric orbit that brings it into the inner solar system. This sudden change may be caused by an impact with another asteroid or by the gravitational pull of Jupiter or Mars. The closest known near-earth collision was in 1994, when asteroid 1994 XL1 came within the Moon's orbit at a distance of 100,000 kilometers from Earth. Earth had missed hitting this asteroid by a mere 52 minutes. This asteroid was only about 15 hours away from Earth when it was first noticed. Only 30 feet in diameter, 1994 XL1 was 100,000 times fainter than an object that could be seen with the naked eye. Each year other asteroids are spotted coming close to Earth. Evidence on Earth indicates that some asteroids have come close enough to be drawn into Earth by gravitational attraction. A 110-mile-wide crater discovered by oil geologists under the Yucatan Peninsula and the Gulf of Mexico is one such piece of evidence. This crater is closely linked to the extinction of the dinosaurs. Some scientists estimate that a 10-mile-wide asteroid caused this crater Some scientists believe an asteroid impact on Earth caused the extinction of the last of the dinosaurs. How many million years ago did this asteroid impact occur? 284. State one probable reason why asteroid 1994 XL1 was so close to Earth before being spotted by astronomers Approximately how many million kilometers from the Sun is the Asteroid Belt? Base your answers to questions 286 through 288 on the passage below. The Future of the Sun Hydrogen gas is the main source of fuel that powers the nuclear reactions that occur in the Sun. But just like many sources of fuel, the hydrogen is in limited supply. As the hydrogen gas is used up, scientists predict that the helium created as an product of earlier nuclear reactions will begin to fuel new nuclear reactions. When this happens, the Sun is expected to become a red giant star with a radius that would extend out past the orbit of Venus and possibly out as far as Earth's orbit. Earth will probably not survive this change in the Sun's size. But no need to worry at this time. The Sun is not expected to expand to this size for a few billion years Explain why a red giant star, similar to Aldebaran, has a greater luminosity than the Sun.

93 287. On the diagram of the planets and the Sun's surface, draw a vertical line to represent the inferred location of the Sun's surface when it becomes a red giant star Identify the nuclear reaction referred to in this passage that combines hydrogen gas to form helium and produces most of the Sun's energy. Base your answers to questions 289 through 293 on the two diagrams. Diagram I shows the orbits of the four inner planets. Black dots in diagram I show the positions of the orbits where each planet is closest to the Sun. Diagram II shows the orbits of the six planets that are farthest from the Sun. The distance scale in diagram II is different that the distance scale in diagram I Pluto s orbital speed is usually slower than Neptune s orbital speed. Based on diagram II, explain why Pluto s orbital speed is sometimes faster than Neptune s orbital speed Describe how the orbits of each of the nine planets are similar in shape.

94 291. How long does it take the planet Uranus to complete one orbit around the Sun? Units must be included in your answer On diagram II circle the names of the two largest Jovian planets On diagram I, place the letter W on Mars' orbit to represent the position of Mars where the Sun's gravitational force on Mars would be weakest. Base your answers to questions 294 through 296 on the diagram below, which shows the Moon's orbit around Earth. Four positions of the Moon are represented by letters A, B, C, and D. Earth's North Pole is labeled. The shaded areas on Earth and the Moon represent night State one season that begins when the line separating day and night passes through Earth's North Pole, as shown in this diagram A total solar eclipse sometimes occurs when the Moon is at position A. Explain why a total solar eclipse does not occur every time the Moon is at position A What motion of the Moon results in the Moon phases as viewed from Earth?

95 Base your answers to questions 297 and 298 on the calendar model shown below of the inferred history of the universe and on your knowledge of Earth science. The 12-month time line begins with the Big Bang on January 1 and continues to the present time, which is represented by midnight on December 31. Several inferred events and the relative times of their occurrence have been placed in the appropriate locations on the time line How many million years of Earth's geologic history elapsed between the event that occurred on September 10 and the event that occurred on September 25 in this model? 298. State one piece of evidence used by scientists to support the theory that the Big Bang event occurred. Base your answers to questions 299 through 301 on the passage below and on your knowledge of Earth science. Great Balls of Fire The Earth's predicted near-miss with asteroid XF11 in the year 2028 has once again focused attention on the fear that a large asteroid or comet hitting our planet could trigger a global catastrophe. To back this up, every article and television program about XF11 boldly asserted that the dinosaur extinction was caused by a giant asteroid impacting into the Earth 65 million years ago. This has typically been accompanied by a picture of frightened dinosaurs looking skyward at a huge flaming meteorite streaking across the horizon. This scenario is so widely accepted that few commentators bother to question it any more. There is, however, much evidence to suggest that an asteroid may not have hit the Earth 65 million years ago and that, even if it did, it did not cause the mass extinction of life attributed to it. There is also the possibility that dinosaurs may not have been around to witness it! by Paul Chambers forteantimes.com/ articles/111_asteroid.shtml (6/98) 299. Explain how an asteroid impact may have been able to cause a worldwide mass extinction of dinosaurs.

96 300. Identify one geologic process occurring on Earth that could have hidden or even destroyed this inferred impact feature If an asteroid struck Earth 65 million years ago, what surface feature was most likely created by this asteroid impact? Base your answers to questions 302 and 303 on the diagram below, which represents an asteroid's elliptical orbit around the Sun. The dashed line is the major axis of the ellipse The Sun is located at one focal point of the orbit. Place an X on the diagram at the location of the second focal point Place a circle, O, on the orbital path where the velocity of the asteroid would be the least. Base your answers to questions 304 through 306 on the data table below, which shows the average date of the first breakup of ice on the Tanana River at Nenana, Alaska (65 N 149 W). The average date of the first ice breakup is shown for four decades Explain why the number of daylight hours on May 5 for an observer located at Nenana, Alaska, will be different than the number of daylight hours for an observer located at New York, New York (41 N 73 45' W).

97 305. State one possible climate change responsible for the difference in the average dates of the first ice breakups shown by the data table On the grid below, construct a bar graph of the average date of the first ice breakup for each decade shown on the data table The diagram below shows the average distance between the Sun and Earth drawn to a scale of 1 centimeter = 100,000,000 kilometers. Using this same scale, place a small dot representing Jupiter along the line to indicate how far Jupiter would be from the Sun, and label the dot "Jupiter."

98 Base your answers to questions 308 through 311 on the diagram provided which shows observations made by a sailor who left his ship and landed on a small deserted island on June 21. The diagram represents the apparent path of the Sun and the position of Polaris, as observed by the sailor on this island The sailor observed a 1-hour difference between solar noon on the island and solar noon at his last measured longitude onboard his ship. How many degrees of longitude is the island from the sailor's last measured longitude onboard his ship? 309. Based on the sailor's observations, what is the latitude of this island? Include the units and the compass direction in your answer The sailor was still on the island on September 23. On the diagram provided draw the Sun's apparent path for September 23, as it would have appeared to the sailor. Be sure your September 23 path indicates the correct altitude of the noon Sun and begins and ends at the correct points on the horizon On the diagram provided draw an arrow on the June 21 path of the Sun to show the Sun's direction of apparent movement from sunrise to sunset.

99 Base your answers to questions 312 and 313 on the data table below, which lists the apparent diameter of the Sun, measured in minutes and seconds of a degree, as it appears to an observer in New York State. (Apparent diameter is how large an object appears to an observer.) 312. Explain why the apparent diameter of the Sun changes throughout the year as Earth revolves around the Sun On the grid provided, graph the data shown on the table by marking with a dot the apparent diameter of the Sun for each date listed and connecting the dots with a smooth, curved line.

100 314. The Moon has many more impact craters visible on its surface than Earth has on its surface. State two reasons that Earth has so few visible impact craters. Base your answers to questions 315 through 317 on the reading passage below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The Blue Moon A "Blue Moon" is the name given to the second full moon in a calendar month. Because there are roughly 29.5 days between full moons, it is unusual for two full moons to "fit" into a 30 or 31 day month (and impossible to fit into a 28 or 29 day month, so February can never have a Blue Moon). The saying "Once in a Blue Moon" means a rare occurrence, and predates the current astronomical use of the term, which is quite recent. In fact, Blue Moons are not all that rare, on average there will be one Blue Moon every 2.5 years. After 1999, the next Blue Moons will be in November 2001; July 2004; and June The last one before 1999 was in July The term Blue Moon is believed to have originated in 1883 after the eruption of Krakatoa. The volcano put so much dust in the atmosphere that the Moon actually looked blue in color. This was so unusual that the term "once in a Blue Moon" was coined. "The Blue Moon" David R. Williams nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/blue_moon.html 315. Draw the relative positions of Earth, the Moon, and the Sun, as viewed from space, so that a full-moon phase would be visible to an observer on Earth. Label Earth, the Moon, and the Sun in your drawing What is the greatest number of full-moon phases, visible from Earth, that are possible in a span of 1 year? 317. Explain why a Blue Moon never occurs during the month of February.

101 Base your answers to questions 318 and 319 on the diagram below, which shows a model of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Two motions of Earth are indicated. Distances to the Sun are given for two positions of Earth in its orbit Explain why Canada experiences summer when Earth is at its greatest distance from the Sun On the diagram above, place an X on Earth's orbit to indicate Earth's position on May 21. Base your answers to questions 320 and 321 on the information below. Accurate observations of the Sun were made by a New York State observer. This person observed the time of sunrise and the position of sunrise along the eastern horizon for each day during the month of May State the actual Earth motion that causes the Sun to appear to rise each day Describe how the time of sunrise changed for the observer each day during the month of May.

102 Base your answers to questions 322 through 324 on diagram 1 and diagram 2 below, which show some constellations in the night sky viewed by a group of students. Diagram 1 below shows the positions of the constellations at 9:00 p.m. Diagram 2 below shows their positions two hours later.

103 322. Describe the apparent direction of movement of the constellations Hercules and Perseus during the two hours between student observations In which compass direction were the students facing? 324. Circle Polaris on diagram 2 provided above List the five stars below in order of decreasing relative luminosity, with letter a being the brightest. Aldebaran, Betelgeuse, Polaris, Sirius, the Sun

104 326. The diagram provided below shows the Sun, the Moon, and Earth in line with one another in space. On the diagram, draw two dots ( ) on the surface of Earth to indicate the locations where the highest ocean tides are most likely occurring. Base your answers to questions 327 through 329 on the diagram provided below, which represents the Sun's rays striking Earth at a position in its orbit around the Sun What month of the year is represented by the diagram? 328. Draw the line of latitude that is receiving the Sun's direct perpendicular rays on this date Neatly and accurately shade the area of Earth that is in darkness.

105 Base your answers to questions 330 through 332 on the diagram provided, which shows a model of the orbital path of Earth and the partial orbital path of Jupiter around the Sun. A partial orbit of another celestial object, labeled object A, is also shown. Celestial object A is a natural object that is part of our solar system. [All distances are measured to scale from the center of the Sun in this model.] 330. State one reason why determining the exact orbital path and period of revolution of celestial object A might be important to the continued existence of life on Earth Identify what type of solar-system object is most probably represented by celestial object A a On the diagram provided, place an X to represent the position of Mars at the properly scaled distance from the Sun in this model. b On the diagram provided, starting at your plotted position of Mars, draw a scale model of Mars' orbital path. Be careful to show the correct shape of the orbit.

106 Base your answers to questions 333 through 335 on the diagram below. The diagram shows the Sun, Earth, and the Moon's orbit around Earth as viewed from space Explain why solar eclipses do not occur every time the Moon revolves around Earth Approximately how many complete revolutions does the Moon make around Earth each month? 335. To represent the Moon's postion in its orbit when a solar eclipse is viewed from earth, draw a circle to represent the Moon's position in its orbit when a solar eclipse is viewed from Earth. Base your answers to questions 336 through 338 on the diagram below, which shows the altitude of the Sun at solar noon on certain dates. The positions of the Sun, labeled A, B, and C, were measured by an observer at 42 north latitude. The date when the Sun was observed at position A has been deliberately left blank What is the total change in altitude that occurs as the noontime Sun appears to move from position A to position C? 337. Position B represents the Sun's position at solar noon on March 21. On what other date of the year would the noontime Sun be observed at position B?

107 338. Which season begins in New York State when the noontime Sun is observed at position A? 339. State the general relationship between a planet's distance from the Sun and the time a planet takes to complete one orbit around the Sun Base your answer to the following question on the diagram of the ellipse below. a. Calculate the eccentricity of the ellipse to the nearest thousandth. b. State how the eccentricity of the given ellipse compares to the eccentricity of the orbit of Mars.

108 Base your answers to questions 341 through 343 on the information, data table, and diagram below. Astronomers have discovered strong evidence for the existence of three large extrasolar (outside our solar system) planets that orbit Upsilon Andromedae, a star located 44 light years from Earth. The three planets are called planet B, planet C, and planet D. Some of the information gathered about these three new planets is shown in the table below. The period of revolution for planet C has been deliberately left blank. The diagram below compares a part of our solar system to the Upsilon Andromedae planetary system. Planet distances from their respective star and the relative size of each planet are drawn to scale. [The scale for planet distances is not the same scale used for planet size.] 341. If our solar system had a planet located at the same distance from the Sun as planet C is from Upsilon Andromedae, what would be its approximate period of revolution? 342. As planet B travels in its orbit, describe the change in orbital velocity of planet B as the distance between Upsilon Andromedae and planet B decreases Planet D's diameter is 10 times greater than Earth's diameter. What planet in our solar system has a diameter closest in size to the diameter of planet D?

109 344. The photographs below show the Moon and Earth as viewed from space. It is inferred that Earth had many impact craters similar to those shown on the Moon. Describe one process that has destroyed many of the impact craters that once existed on Earth.

110 Base your answers to questions 345 and 346 on the diagram below, which shows the orbit of planet D around the star Upsilon Andromedae. The dashed lines show where the paths of the first four planets of our solar system would be located if they were going around Upsilon Andromedae instead of the Sun. All distances are drawn to scale Describe the changes in gravitational force between planet D and the star Upsilon Andromedae during one complete orbit around the star. Be sure to describe where the force is greatest and where the force is least Describe the eccentricity of planet D's orbit relative to the eccentricities of the orbits of the planets shown in our solar system.

111 Base your answers to questions 347 and 348 on the newspaper article shown below, written by Paul Recer and printed in the Times Union on October 9, Astronomers Peer Closer to Big Bang WASHINGTON The faintest and most distant objects ever sighted galaxies of stars more than 12 billion light years away have been detected by an infrared camera on the Hubble Space Telescope. The sighting penetrates for the first time to within about one billion light years of the very beginning of the universe, astronomers said, and shows that even at that very early time there already were galaxies with huge families of stars. "We are seeing farther than ever before," said Rodger I. Thompson, a University of Arizona astronomer and the principal researcher in the study. Thompson and his team focused an infrared instrument on the Hubble on a narrow patch of the sky that had been previously photographed in visible light. The instrument detected about 100 galaxies that were not seen in the visible light and 10 of these were at extreme distance. He said the galaxies are seen as they were when the universe was only about 5 percent of its present age. Astronomers generally believe the universe began with a massive explosion, called the "big bang," that occurred about 13 billion years ago. Since the big bang, astronomers believe that galaxies are moving rapidly away from each other, spreading out and becoming more distant Compare the age of Earth and our solar system to the age of these distant galaxies of stars The big-bang theory is widely believed by astronomers to explain the beginning of the universe. Why does the light from distant galaxies support the big-bang theory? Base your answers to questions 349 and 350 on diagrams I through III below. Diagrams I, II, and III represent the length and direction of the shadow of a vertical stick measured at noon on three different dates at 42 N latitude On the diagram provided, draw the direction and length of the shadow at noon that will most likely be observed at 42 N latitude on June 21.

112 350. Explain how the changing altitude (angle of incidence) of the noon Sun affects the length of the shadows shown in the diagrams The diagram provided below represents the Sun and Earth as viewed from space on a certain date. a Using a symbol for the Moon of approximately the size of a dime, draw the position of the Moon on the diagram provided above at the time when the full-moon phase is observed from Earth. b Draw an arrow on the diagram provided above that shows the Earth motion that causes surface ocean currents and surface winds to curve (Coriolis effect). Base your answers to questions 352 through 355 on the diagram below, which represents an exaggerated model of Earth's orbital shape. Earth is closest to the Sun at one time of year (perihelion) and farthest from the Sun at another time of year (aphelion) State the relationship between Earth's distance from the Sun and Earth's orbital velocity Describe the change that takes place in the apparent size of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, as Earth moves from perihelion to aphelion Identify the season in the Northern Hemisphere when Earth is at perihelion.

113 355. State the actual geometric shape of Earth's orbit On the United States time zone map provided below, indicate the standard time in each time zone when it is 9 a.m. in the Central Time Zone. The dashed lines represent the standard-time meridians for each time zone. Be sure to indicate the time for all three zones The photograph below shows an impact crater approximately 1 mile wide located in Diablo Canyon, Arizona. Describe the event that produced this crater.

114 Base your answers to questions 358 and 359 on the graph below, which shows the inferred stages of development of the Sun, showing luminosity and surface temperature at various stages Which star shown on the "Luminosity and Temperature of Stars" graph in the Earth Science Reference Tables is currently at the Sun's final predicted stage of development? 359. Describe the changes in luminosity of the Sun that will occur from its current Main Sequence stage to its final White Dwarf stage. Base your answers to questions 360 through 362 on the data table below, which shows one cycle of equinoxes and solstices for the northern hemispheres of several planets in the solar system and the tilt of each planet's axis. Data for the planets are based on Earth's time system Identify two factors that cause seasons on Earth.