Determination of Flame Dynamics for Unsteady Combustion Systems using Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy. Adam G.

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1 Determination of Flame Dynamics for Unsteady Combustion Systems using Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy Adam G. Hendricks Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering Dr. Uri Vandsburger, Chair Dr. William R. Saunders Dr. William T. Baumann Dr. Vivek K. Khanna December 2003 Blacksburg, Virginia Keywords: Flame Dynamics, Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy, Combustion, Thermoacoustic Instabilities Copyright 2003, Adam G. Hendricks

2 Determination of Flame Dynamics for Unsteady Combustion Systems using Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy Adam G. Hendricks Abstract Lean, premixed combustion has enjoyed increased application due to the need to reduce pollutant emissions. Unfortunately, operating the flame at lean conditions increases susceptibility to thermoacoustic (TA) instability. Self-excited TA instabilities are a result of the coupling of the unsteady heat release rate of the flame with the acoustics of the combustion chamber. The result is large pressure oscillations that degrade performance and durability of combustion systems. Industry currently has no reliable tool to predict instabilities a priori. CFD simulations of full-scale, turbulent, reacting flows remain unrealizable. The work in this paper is part of a study that focuses on developing compact models of TA instabilities, i.e. acoustics and flame dynamics. Flame dynamics are defined as the response in heat release to acoustic perturbations. Models of flame dynamics can be coupled with models of combustor enclosure acoustics to predict TA instabilities. In addition, algorithms to actively control instabilities can be based on these compact models of flame dynamics and acoustics. The work outlined in this thesis aims at determining the flame dynamics model experimentally. Velocity perturbations are imparted on laminar and turbulent flames via a loudspeaker upstream of the flame. The response of the flame is observed through two measurements. Hydroxyl radical (OH*) chemiluminescence indicates the response in chemical reaction rate. Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (TDLAS), centered over two water absorption features, allows a dynamic measurement of the product gas temperature. The response in product gas temperature directly relates to the enthalpy fluctuations that couple to the acoustics. Experimental frequency response functions of a laminar, flat-flame burner and a turbulent, swirl-stabilized combustor will be presented as well as empirical low-order models of flame dynamics. ii

3 Acknowledgements The work presented in this thesis is the result of the effort of a large network of people. To all that have contributed to my success thank you. First and foremost, to Dr. Vandsburger, who has been my tireless mentor and advocate for the four and a half years that I have known him: thank you for providing me with the perfect balance between direction and personal discovery. Your emphasis on fostering the growth of your students as researchers will serve me for the rest of my career. To the other members of the Virginia Active Combustion Control Group, thank you for help and willingness to interact and lend your expertise to my project. From my undergraduate years to now, each one of you has played an integral part in my experience and education. To my family and friends, thank you for your constant support and interest in my endeavors. It has meant a great deal in helping me to stay motivated. A thanks is also in order for those that contributed directly to this project. To Dr. Hanson and the High Temperature Gasdynamics Laboratory at Stanford University, thank you for allowing me to gain experience in your lab and for your willingness to answer questions on Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy. To Glenn Diskin at NASA-Langley, thank you for providing your expertise and equipment in characterizing the diode lasers. iii

4 Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgements List of Graphical Materials 1 Introduction Motivation Objectives Background Semiconductor Lasers Absorption Spectroscopy Chemiluminescence Dynamic Systems Flame Dynamics Scope Approach Structure of Thesis 16 2 Literature Review Diagnostics for Reacting Flows Semiconductor Lasers Absorption Spectroscopy Chemiluminescence Combustion Instabilities Acoustics Equivalence Ratio Fluctuations Fluid Mechanics and Turbulence 27 3 Experimental Method Dynamic Temperature Measurement Near-IR Line Candidates Measurement Sensitivity Experimental Hardware Procedure Equivalence Ratio Fluctuations IR Line Candidates Measurement Sensitivity Experimental Hardware Hydroxyl Radical Chemiluminescence Species Candidates Experimental Hardware Laminar Burner Experimental Hardware Turbulent Combustor Velocity Sensor 50 ii iii vii iv

5 3.5 Laminar, Flat-Flame Burner Design Apparatus Turbulent, Swirl-Stabilized Combustor Design Apparatus Data Acquisition System 61 4 Laminar Flame Dynamics Study Objectives Experimental Procedure Measurement Process Frequency Response Data Analysis Experimental Results OH* Chemiluminescence Frequency Response Functions Temperature Frequency Response Functions Comparison of Reaction Rate and Acoustic Forcing Function Dynamics Zeros in Temperature Frequency Response Functions Evidence of Flame Wrinkling Comparison to Laminar Flame Code Fuel Variability Models of Laminar Flame Dynamics Approach Dimensional Analysis Case Models General Model Summary and Conclusions Turbulent Flame Dynamics Study Objectives Experimental Procedure Measurement Process Frequency Response Data Analysis Experimental Results OH* Chemiluminescence Frequency Response Functions Temperature Frequency Response Functions Chimney Acoustics Comparison of Laminar and Turbulent Flame Dynamics Comparison of Reaction Rate and Acoustic Forcing Function Dynamics Models of Turbulent Flame Dynamics Approach Dimensional Analysis Case Models 147 v

6 5.4.4 General Model Summary and Conclusions Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions Recommendations for Future Study Laminar Flame Dynamics Turbulent Flame Dynamics Equivalence Ratio Fluctuations Fuel Variability Active Combustion Control 169 Appendix A: Error Analysis 170 Appendix B: Spectroscopic Data 175 B1 Calibration Data B2 Wavelength-Scanning Technique Appendix C: Equipment Information 181 Appendix D: Technical Drawings 182 Appendix E: Circuit Diagrams 184 Appendix F: TDLAS Manual 190 Vita 203 vi

7 List of Graphical Materials Figure 1.1. System Diagram. System diagram of self-excited thermo-acoustic instabilities 2 Table 1.2 Relevant Absorption Bands. Absorption bands of species in combustion..4 Figure 1.3. Typical Absorption Spectroscopy Experimental Setup..4 Figure 1.4. Energy Levels. Chemiluminescence results from an excited radial decreasing energy levels and emitting light [6] 8 Figure 1.5. Typical Frequency Response Functions. FRF s are presented as magnitude and phase...11 Figure 1.6. Open-Loop System. No feedback is present in an open-loop system..12 Figure 1.7. Step Response of Acoustic Forcing Term. A 1-D model including full chemistry and all modes of heat transfer was used [8].15 Figure 1.8. Comparison of T / t and T / x Terms from 1-D Model. The T / t term dominates the acoustic forcing function..15 Figure 2.1. Modes of Vibration. The mode of vibration determines the wavelength of emission or absorption..20 Figure 2.2. Chemiluminescence Spectrum. The spectrum was measured on a Bunsentype flame [26].22 Figure 2.3. Rijke Tube Stability. When the velocity and pressure fluctuations are in phase (a), a positive Rayleigh index (b) indicates growth of the oscillation [from [30]] Figure 3.1. Water Absorption Spectra. Calculated absorption spectrum of water at 2000K overlaid with available diode laser wavelengths (gray bars). The heavy arrows indicate candidate transitions [1]..32 Figure 3.2. Selected Transitions. Expanded view of transitions used in this study...33 Figure 3.3. Temperature Dependence. The dependence of linestrength on temperature 33 vii

8 Figure 3.4. Sensitivity to Concentration. A change in concentration does not significantly change R..35 Figure 3.5. Diode-Laser Experimental Setup. The beams (only one shown) pass through the flame twice to increase signal to noise ratio.37 Figure 3.6. Beam Paths. The beams are on approximately the same path...37 Figure 3.7. Laminar Burner Setup. The lasers and detectors were kept on the same optical bench: nm, nm 38 Figure 3.8. Turbulent Burner Setup. Water-cooling and shields protect the optics from the flame...39 Figure 3.9. Absorption Lineshapes in Ambient Air. The absorption of water in ambient air must be accounted for to obtain accurate temperatures (a) cm -1 (b) cm Figure Absorption Lineshapes with Flame. The water absorption in the presence of the flame is much greater than the background absorption.43 Figure Digital filter. The digital filter does not affect the phase of the data..44 Figure Methane Transition. The transition at 3392 nm ( cm -1 ) was probed in this study..45 Figure Methane Absorption Experimental Setup...46 Figure Window Assembly Laminar Burner. Windows are mounted on tubes to adjust the pathlength 47 Figure Window Assembly Turbulent Combustor. Threaded tubes hold sapphire windows in place 47 Figure OH* Chemiluminescence Receiving Optics Laminar Burner. Fiber optics carried light to a monochrometer..49 Figure OH* Chemiluminescence Receiving Optics Turbulent Combustor. The turbulent combustor used a lens and filter system 50 Figure Velocity Sensor used in the Laminar Burner. The sensor is located directly upstream of the honeycomb 51 Figure Velocity Sensor used in the Turbulent Combustor. The sensor is located upstream of the swirler 51 viii

9 Figure Frequency Response and Coherence between Microphones. Variations are due to the locations of the microphones in the combustor 53 Figure Velocity Frequency Response and Coherence. (a) laminar burner, (b) turbulent combustor..54 Figure Circuit Frequency Response Function. The response of the circuit to random noise input...56 Figure Laminar Flat-Flame Burner. The stable burner was used to study laminar flame dynamics..58 Figure Turbulent, Swirl-Stabilized Combustor [Khanna, 2001]. Swirl- Stabilized combustors are used in many current gas turbines 60 Figure Rig Modifications. The turbulent rig was modified to allow for static swirlers and optical access to measure equivalence ratio fluctuations...60 Figure 4.1. Time-Trace Data. The filtered signal (dark blue) maintains phase integrity with the raw signal (light blue)...65 Figure 4.2. OH* Chemiluminescence Frequency Response - Methane. Normalized to DC value (a)q=145 cc/sec, (b) Q=160 cc/sec, (c)q=180 cc/sec, (d) Q=200 cc/sec..70 Figure 4.3. OH* Chemiluminescence Frequency Response - Ethane. Normalized to DC value (a)q=145 cc/sec, (b) Q=200 cc/sec 71 Figure 4.4. OH* Chemiluminescence Frequency Response - Propane. Normalized to DC value (a)q=145 cc/sec, (b) Q=200 cc/sec.72 Figure 4.5. Temperature Frequency Response - Methane. Normalized to DC value. (a)q=145 cc/sec (b) Q=160 cc/sec, (c)q=180 cc/sec (d) Q=200 cc/sec..77 Figure 4.6. Temperature Frequency Response - Ethane. Normalized to DC value. (a)q=145 cc/sec (b) Q=200 cc/sec...78 Figure 4.7. Temperature Frequency Response - Propane. Normalized to DC value. (a)q=145 cc/sec (b) Q=200 cc/sec 79 Figure 4.8. Comparison of Reaction Rate and Acoustic Forcing Function Dynamics. The damping and bandwidth of the frequency responses are dissimilar..81 Figure 4.9. Zeros in the Temperature FRF s. A phase rise of 180 degrees and an inverted peak in the magnitude indicate a set of complex conjugate zeros..83 ix

10 Figure Possible Causes of Zeros. (a) entropy wave interaction, (b) symmetric modes.84 Figure Wrinkled Flame Front. Image taken from Markstein..85 Figure D Model Coordinates. A line-of-sight measurement on a 2-D phenomenon..86 Figure Iso-Surface. The surface represents a vertical plane of the flame front, fluctuating in time (t), and space (x).87 Figure Simulated Signal. Integration over the y-range [-0.4,0.6] generates a timevarying signal representing the line-of-sight measurement..87 Figure Forced Frequency Response. The FRF shows resonances with no phase drop...88 Figure Numerical Flame Model. The numerical model predicts the frequency responses well for most cases...91 Figure Local v. Global Frequency Response Function. The frequency response is dependent on measurement location 93 Table Fuel Properties. Methane, ethane, and propane were studied [9] 94 Figure Fuel Variability OH* FRF. Fuel properties affect the flame dynamics...96 Figure Fuel Variability Temperature FRF. Properties of the fuel affect the transient response.98 Figure Laminar Flame Speed for Methane. The flame speed varies with equivalence ratio..104 Table Steady-state OH* levels [V].106 Table Dynamic Models of Chemical Heat Release Rate.107 Figure Parameters of the Dynamic Models of Chemical Heat Release Rate. Flow rates [cc/sec]: 145, 160, 180, Figure Dynamic Models of Chemical Heat Release Rate for Methane..110 Figure Dynamic Models of Chemical Heat Release Rate for Ethane.111 Figure Dynamic Models of Chemical Heat Release Rate for Propane x

11 Table Steady-State Temperature. The steady-state temperature was measured at the beginning and end of each test Table Parameters of the Dynamic Models of Acoustic Forcing Function. Second-order models with time delay approximate the data 114 Figure Parameters of the Dynamic Models of the Acoustic Forcing Function. Flow rates [cc/sec]: 145, 160, 180, Figure Dynamic Models of Acoustic Forcing Function Dynamics for Methane. Transfer functions were fit to the data plotted as a function of equivalence ratio * 0.50, x 0.55, , 0.65, Figure Dynamic Models of Acoustic Forcing Function Dynamics for Ethane. Transfer functions were fit to the data plotted as a function of equivalence ratio: x 0.55, Figure Dynamic Models of Acoustic Forcing Function Dynamics for Propane. Transfer functions were fit to the data plotted as a function of equivalence ratio: x 0.55, Table General Model Parameters. The general model describes a large portion of the data well 120 Figure General Dynamic Model of Acoustic Forcing Function Dynamics for Methane. The general model describes the majority of the cases. Plotted as a function of equivalence ratio * 0.50, x 0.55, , 0.65, Figure General Dynamic Model of Acoustic Forcing Function Dynamics for Ethane. The general model describes the majority of the cases. Plotted as a function of equivalence ratio: x 0.55, Figure General Dynamic Model of Acoustic Forcing Function Dynamics for Propane. The general model describes the majority of the cases. Plotted as a function of equivalence ratio: x 0.55, Figure 5.1. OH* Chemiluminescence Frequency Response Functions. The frequency responses show similar trends (a) data, (b) legend..131 Figure 5.2. Temperature Frequency Response. Turbulent flames exhibit complicated AFF dynamics. (a) data, (b) legend..133 Figure 5.3 Chimney Pressure: No Flame. The chimney pressure shows no significant acoustic resonances xi

12 Figure 5.4 Chimney Pressure: with Flame. No acoustic resonances are observed at high forcing amplitudes.134 Figure 5.5. OH* Chemiluminescence FRF. Reaction rate dynamics are similar for the laminar (.) and turbulent (o) flames at low frequencies.136 Figure 5.6. Temperature FRF. AFF dynamics are similar for the laminar (.) and turbulent (o) flames at frequencies below 200 Hz..137 Figure 5.7. Comparison of OH* Chemiluminescence (OH) and Temperature (T) Frequency Response Functions. Responses are similar at frequencies below 180 Hz Table 5.8. Steady-State OH* Chemiluminescence.142 Table 5.9. Steady-State Temperatures Figure Turbulent Flame Speed. Turbulent flame speed was estimated 143 Table Legend. The legend applies to the remainder of figures in Chapter Table Regimes of Turbulent Premixed Combustion [3] 144 Figure Damkohler Number. The Damkohler number indicates the residence time 145 Figure Turbulence Diagram. Image taken from [5]..146 Figure Karlovitz number. The Karlovitz number indicates the degree of flame stretch 147 Table Reaction Rate Model Parameters.148 Figure Pole-Zero Map. X poles, O zeros 149 Figure Model Parameters. The parameters are monotonic with equivalence ratio. blue: Q=20, S=0.78, magenta: Q=20, S=0.45, green: Q=25, S= Figure Reaction Rate Models. A 6 th order system with time delay describes the reaction rate dynamics..154 Table AFF Model Parameters. The turbulent AFF is modeled with a 4 th order system..155 Figure Pole-Zero Map. X poles, O zeros..156 xii

13 Figure Model Parameters. The parameters are monotonic with equivalence ratio. blue: Q=20, S=0.78, magenta: Q=20, S=0.45, green: Q=25, S= Figure Acoustic Forcing Function Models. The acoustic forcing function was modeled with 4 zeros and 4 poles 160 Table General Model Parameters. The general model describes a large portion of the data well.160 Figure General Model. The general model describes the majority of the cases Figure 6.1. System Diagram of Self-Excited Thermoacoustic Instabilities..168 Figure A1.1. Frequency Response between Microphones. Microphones with similar sensitivities were used in the sensor [4].171 Figure A1.2. Flow Meter Calibration. A linear curve was fit to the calibration data supplied for the Eldridge air flow meter (SR ) 173 Table B1.1 Diode Calibration Data. The diodes behave linearly with temperature and injection current..175 Figure B1.2. Diode Calibration Data. (a) 1343 nm laser, (b) 1392 nm laser Table B1.3. Spectroscopic Parameters. These parameters were used to simulate water absorption 177 Figure B2.1. Transmission and Absorption Data with Polynomial Baseline. The data was obtained on the turbulent, swirl-stabilized combustor..179 Figure B2.2. Effect of Scan Percentage and Polynomial Order. Error increases as less of the scan is used in the baseline determination and as the order of the polynomial is increased [2] 180 Figure E.1. Photodiode Circuit. The circuit amplifies and filters the photodiode signal..184 Figure E.2. Photodiode Circuit Frequency Response. The magnitude and phase are relatively constant from Hz..185 Figure E.3. PMT Circuit. The circuit provides signal conditioning for the photomultiplier tube 186 Figure E.4. PMT Circuit Frequency Response. The phase varies 15 degrees over 3 khz..187 xiii

14 Figure E.5. Dynamic Velocity Probe Circuit. The circuit simulates the 1-D Euler equation to measure velocity from two microphones 188 Figure E.6. Dynamic Velocity Probe Circuit FRF. (a) laminar burner (b) turbulent combustor..189 Figure F.1. Diode-Laser Experimental Setup. The beams (only one shown) pass through the flame twice to increase signal to noise ratio..192 Figure F.2. Beam Paths. The beams are on approximately the same path Figure F.3. Laminar Burner Setup. The lasers and detectors were kept on the same optical bench: nm, nm Figure F.4. Turbulent Burner Setup. Water-cooling and shields protect the optics from the flame.194 Figure F.5. Absorption Lineshapes in Ambient Air. The absorption of water in ambient air must be accounted for to obtain accurate temperatures (a) cm -1 (b) cm Figure F.6. Absorption Lineshapes with Flame. The water absorption in the presence of the flame is much greater than the background absorption Figure F.7. Digital filter. The digital filter does not affect the phase of the data..201 xiv

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