Solar eruptive phenomena

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1 Solar eruptive phenomena Andrei Zhukov Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence SIDC, Royal Observatory of Belgium 26/01/2018 1

2 Eruptive solar activity Solar activity exerts continous influence on the solar system, including the Earth. The phenomena of solar activity take place on a variety of time scales, from milliseconds to thousands of years. This presentation focuses on eruptive solar phenomena, i.e. the abrupt variations of activity taking place on short time scales (several minutes to several days). 26/01/2018 2

3 Why can solar activity be harmful to us? It is because we live in the atmosphere of a variable magnetic star! 26/01/2018 3

4 total eclipse Solar corona and solar wind 26/01/2018 4

5 total eclipse photosphere imaged in the visible light Solar corona and solar wind 26/01/2018 5

6 total eclipse corona imaged in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) Solar corona and solar wind 26/01/2018 6

7 space-borne coronagraph total eclipse corona imaged in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) Solar corona and solar wind 26/01/2018 7

8 eclipse + coronagraph space-borne coronagraph total eclipse corona imaged in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) Solar corona and solar wind 26/01/2018 8

9 eclipse + coronagraph space-borne coronagraph total eclipse corona imaged in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) Solar corona and solar wind Solar corona is the outer layer of the atmosphere of the Sun. The corona is magnetized and is in permanent expansion. Its expansion speed (usually between 400 et 800 km/s) is above the sound speed of the ambient medium (around 150 km/s). 26/01/2018 9

10 Our trips to the Moon (and to Mars in future) Apollo 16: April 1972 Apollo 17: 7-19 December 1972 (BBSO) 4 August 1972: a solar super-flare! 26/01/

11 (ESA, NASA) A story of a solar eruption 26/01/

12 (ESA, NASA) Three solar phenomena that can be geoeffective on short time scales Solar flares Their electromagnetic emission perturbs the terrestrial ionosphere. Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) Their magnetic field drives geomagnetic storms (with auroras as their most spectacular manifestation). Solar energetic particles mostly protons and electrons can be generated by both flares and CMEs, produce radiation storms. 26/01/

13 (NASA) Phenomenology: a solar flare K K K K K K K K 26/01/

14 (NASA) Phenomenology: a solar flare K K K K A flare is a local (inside a sunspot group) and sudden (on a time scale of minutes) increase of solar electromagnetic emission observed in different spectral domains K K K K 26/01/

15 (ESA, NASA) A series of flares observed during a half of a solar rotation (14 days) 26/01/

16 Energy and power of a solar eruption Energy Min Typ. Max Flare (J) World s production of energie during 7 days 20 years years Total energy consumption in Belgium during 4 years years 4 million years Volcanic eruptions million H-bombs (20 MT) million Power Min Typ. Max Flare (W) Total world power million 500 million Solar power at Earth Most energetic phenomena close to the Earth! 26/01/

17 η Carinae (NASA) Phenomenology: coronal mass ejections (CMEs) A CME is an ejection of plasma observed by a coronagraph. The CME speed is generally between 200 km/s (slower than the solar wind) and 2500 km/s (significantly faster than the solar wind). Plasma ejections are also observed in other stars, although they may correspond to different physical mechanisms. 26/01/ (ESA, NASA)

18 (ESA, NASA) CMEs are transparent (like the corona itself). The apparent differences in their morphology are often due to the projection effect: from one vantage point, a CME can be observed with a limited angular extent, from another vantage point, the same CME can be observed as a halo. Halo CMEs may propagate towards the observer, for example towards the Earth. 26/01/

19 (ESA, NASA, A. Zhukov) CME signatures in EUV Coronal dimmings EIT waves Post-eruptive arcades Limb signatures: loop opening, plasmoid rise, etc. Eruptive prominences (eruptive filaments) 30/09/

20 CME signatures in EUV In this movie, one can see different CME signatures observed in extreme ultraviolet (EUV): eruption of a filament (prominence), i.e. of relatively cold ( K) material that appears dark, post-eruptive arcade (a consequence of magnetic reconnection, see below), coronal dimmings (places of plasma evacuations during the CME lift-off), loop opening (a consequence of a magnetic instability). (ESA, NASA) 30/09/

21 (ESA, NASA) Another solar eruption In this movie, one can see: a flare, different CME signatures in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV): a post-eruptive arcade (a consequence of magnetic reconnection, see below), coronal dimmings (places of plasma evacuation during the CME lift-off), a CME, a solar energetic particle event. 26/01/

22 (NASA; N. Nitta) (ESA, NASA) EIT waves EIT waves were discovered using the EIT instrument developed by an international consortium and manufactured at the Centre Spatial de Liège. 30/09/

23 Physics of CMEs: magnetic flux ropes In a magnetic flux rope, the magnetic field is twisted. A magnetic flux rope (preexisting or formed during the eruption) is an essential ingredient of CME models. 26/01/

24 Physics of CMEs: catastrophic restructuring of the coronal magnetic field 26/01/

25 Physics of CMEs: catastrophic restructuring of the coronal magnetic field And without equations?.. 26/01/

26 Physics of CMEs: catastrophic restructuring of the coronal magnetic field (B. Kliem et al.) Catastrophe theory can be applied to CMEs. A catastrophe of the magnetic field can occur in two different ways: an instability, a loss of equilibrium. Torus instability 26/01/

27 Instability Physics of CMEs: catastrophic restructuring of the coronal magnetic field Loss of equilibrium (B. Kliem et al.) Catastrophe theory can be applied to CMEs. A catastrophe of the magnetic field can occur in two different ways: an instability, a loss of equilibrium. Torus instability 26/01/

28 (UKAEA) (T. Török, B. Kliem) Physics of CMEs: catastrophic restructuring of the coronal magnetic field There exist numerous types of magnetic instabilities in plasma. Another instability observed in the solar atmosphere: kink instability. This instability is also seen in the fusion research that uses magnetic confinement. 30/09/

29 (E. Priest) CME initiation in the low corona and link with flares 26/01/

30 (E. Priest) (U. Anzer & G. Pneumann) CME initiation in the low corona and link with flares 26/01/

31 (E. Priest) (U. Anzer & G. Pneumann) CME initiation in the low corona and link with flares 26/01/

32 (E. Priest) (U. Anzer & G. Pneumann) CME initiation in the low corona and link with flares Magnetic field lines of force are elongated and stretched due to the development of an instability. This may induce their reconnection. 26/01/

33 Physics: magnetic reconnection The reconnection of magnetic field lines leads to the conversion of free magnetic energy into: kinetic energy of bulk plasma motions (CME!), thermal energy of plasma leading to the increased radiation (flare!), energy of accelerated particles (that get thermalized and produce another component of the flare radiation). 30/09/

34 (NASA; H. Q. Song et al.) Physics: magnetic reconnection 30/09/

35 (NASA; H. Q. Song et al.) Physics: magnetic reconnection 30/09/

36 Energetic particle acceleration by magnetic reconnection and X-ray flares X-rays in a solar flare and in an X-ray tube originate in the same physical process. 26/01/

37 CME propagation towards the Earth Sun Earth The effect of a CME on the terrestrial environment depends mostly on the orientation of the CME magnetic field. 26/01/

38 (ESA, NASA) Phenomenology: solar energetic particle event A solar eruption can accelerate particles in several ways. The flare reconnection acceletrates the particles towards low altitudes (these particles produce the X-ray emission). The flare reconnection (?) also accelerates particles towards high altitudes. The shock wave driven by the CME plays a crucial role in the particle acceleration. 26/01/

39 (ESA, NASA) (NASA) (NSF, NASA; Nikolić et al.) Shock waves 26/01/

40 (R. Schwenn) Origin of transient shock waves in the heliosphere 26/01/

41 (R. Schwenn) Origin of transient shock waves in the heliosphere The transient shock waves in the heliosphere (i.e. those associated with solar eruptions) are produced by CMEs. 26/01/

42 (R. Treumann & C. Jaroschek) Acceleration of particles by the shock waves The energy of particles increases due to multiple reflections atthe waves and small-scale structures in the turbulent medium present at both sides of the propagating shock wave. 26/01/

43 (NASA) (NSF, NASA; Nikolić et al.) The same process of energetic particle acceleration takes place in the CME-driven shock waves and in supernova shock waves Solar cosmic rays Galactic cosmic rays 26/01/

44 (V. Bothmer) Phenomenologie: un evenement des particules energetiques 26/01/

45 (ESA, NASA) Solar eruptions: a summary 26/01/

46 Physics of solar eruptions: the old and the modern paradigms Old paradigm 26/01/2018 (J. Gosling) 46

47 What was the danger for the astronautes? Apollo 16: April 1972 Apollo 17: 7-19 December 1972 (BBSO) The danger was very real: a very high flux of energetic protons, mainly produced by the shock wave driven by the CME associated with the super-flare on 4 August 1972! 4 August 1972: a solar super-flare! 26/01/

48 Thank you for your attention! 26/01/

49 Further reading J. T. Gosling The Solar Flare Myth. J. Geophys. Res. 98, A11, (1993) R. Schwenn Space Weather: The Solar Perspective. Living Rev. Solar Phys., 3, 2 (2006) 26/01/

50 Backup slides 26/01/

51 CME propagation towards the Earth: a model 26/01/

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