Therefore the atomic diameter is 5 orders of magnitude ( times) greater than the m

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1 Orders f Magnitude Pwers f 10 are referred t as rders f magnitude e.g. smething a thusand times larger (10 3 ) is three rders f magnitude bigger. A prtn has a diameter f the rder ~10-15 m The diameter f the hydrgen atm is f the rder ~10-10 m Therefre the atmic diameter is 5 rders f magnitude ( times) greater than the 10 diameter f a single prtn The bservable Universe has a scale f the rder ~10 26 m Examples Object Diameter f prtn Diameter f nucleus Diameter f hydrgen atm Diameter f a dust particle Height f a persn Height f Ben Nevis Diameter f Earth Diameter f the Sun Diameter f the Slar System Distance t next nearest galaxy (Andrmeda) Scale f the bservable Universe Order f magnitude m m m 10-4 m 10 0 m 10 3 m 10 7 m 10 9 m m m m An excellent interactive explratin f the scale f the universe frm smallest t largest, thrugh the rders f magnitude can be fund at

2 Marr Cllege Physics Department Higher Physics Summary Ntes Particles and Waves Sub-nuclear particles - quarks The develpment f highly advanced particle acceleratrs and detectrs have allwed physicists t discver a vast range f particles that are smaller than prtns and neutrns Thery supprted by experimental evidence have prved that prtns and neutrns are cmpsed f smaller sub-nuclear particles called quarks The names given t the quarks that make up prtns and neutrns are called the up quark and the dwn quark An up quark has a charge f A dwn quark has a charge f A prtn (charge = +1) cnsists f tw up quarks and ne dwn quark u d u Prtn (tw up quarks and ne dwn quark) A neutrn (charge = 0) cnsists f ne up quark and tw dwn quarks d u d Neutrn (ne up quarks and tw dwn quarks) 1

3 Marr Cllege Physics Department Higher Physics Summary Ntes Particles and Waves Antimatter Thery, supprted with experiments using particle acceleratrs and detectrs, have als prven the existence f antimatter Antimatter cnsists f particles that are identical t their nrmal cunterparts in every way, apart frm having the ppsite charge e.g. the psitrn has an identical mass t the electrn but has a charge f (+1) An antiprtn has an identical mass t the prtn but has a charge f (-1) Thery suggests that every particle has an antimatter cunterpart, and the psitrn was first detected by experiment in When a matter particle meets its antimatter cunterpart, they annihilate, i.e. the mass f the particles is cnverted t energy electrn-psitrn annihilatin is used in a medical imaging technique called Psitrn Emissin Tmgraphy (PET). Fundamental particles A fundamental particle is a particle that cannt be brken dwn int smaller cmpnents A prtn is nt a fundamental particle since it has been prven t cnsist f smaller cmpnents, quarks The electrn is a fundamental particle since it has never been brken dwn int smaller cmpnents by experiments, and there is n thery t suggest that it shuld be made f smaller cmpnents The Standard Mdel The Standard Mdel classifies (grups) the fundamental particles In additin, the Standard mdel describes frce-carrying particles which interact with particles and accunt fr three f the fur fundamental frces in ur Universe (strng nuclear frce, weak nuclear frce and electrmagnetic frce The develpment f the Standard Mdel, the subsequent interactin physics, and the amazing agreement between thery and experiment is cnsidered ne f the greatest achievements in science The physics f the Standard Mdel explains hw everything in ur Universe wrks apart frm gravity Einstein s thery f General Relativity (Advanced Higher) describes perfectly hw gravity behaves n the Universe scale (~ m) but des nt fit with what is bserved n the subatmic ( < m) scale. 2

4 Marr Cllege Physics Department Higher Physics Summary Ntes Particles and Waves The diagram shwn belw gives infrmatin n the Standard Mdel f Fundamental Particles and Interactins Fermins Bsns Predicted by thery but has never been detected r bserved 3

5 Marr Cllege Physics Department Higher Physics Summary Ntes Particles and Waves Matter particles - fermins There are 6 quarks quarks cmbine t frm larger particles A particle cnsisting f quarks is called a hadrn Hadrns - Baryns and Mesns There is a further classificatin f hadrns Particles cnsisting f three quarks are called baryns Prtns and neutrns are baryns since they cnsist f three quarks (see abve) Particles cnsisting f tw quarks are called mesns Mesns are highly unstable and are nly detected in experiments invlving cllisins f particle beams in particle acceleratrs The neutral K 0 mesn (Kan). One dwn quark and ne antistrange quark The psitive π + mesn (pin). One up quark and ne anti-dwn quark Leptns and neutrins There are three leptns (the electrn and similar particles) Every leptn has its wn ghst particle assciated with it called a neutrin Neutrins are tiny, neutral, almst massless particles which are predicted by thery Fr example, beta decay invlves the emissin f an electrn frm the nucleus, alng with its partner, the electrn neutrin (discussed further belw) n p e where e is the symbl fr the electrn neutrin In spite f being incredibly hard t detect, physicists have prven the existence f neutrins experimentally using detectrs 4

6 Marr Cllege Physics Department Higher Physics Summary Ntes Particles and Waves Frce-mediating particles - bsns Frce-mediating particles, r bsns are respnsible fr transmitting the effects f each fundamental frce f nature The fundamental frces f nature are The strng nuclear frce (carried by the glun) The weak nuclear frce (carried by the W and Z bsns) The electrmagnetic frce (carried by the phtn ) The gravitatinal frce (prpsed t be carried by a particle named the gravitn) The table belw summarises ur current understanding f the fundamental frces and their bsns Frce Exchange Particle (bsn) Range (m) Relative strength Apprximate decay time (s) Example effects Strng nuclear glun Hlding prtns and neutrns tgether in the nucleus Weak nuclear W and Z Beta decay bsns Electrmagnetic phtn infinite Hlding electrns in atms Gravitatinal gravitn (predicted but never detected) infinite 1 unknwn never detected Hlding matter tgether in planets, stars and galaxies and keeping everything in rbit The strng nuclear frce hlds prtns and neutrns tgether in the nucleus It acts ver a very shrt range f ~10-15 m the diameter f the nucleus At these distances it is much strnger than electrstatic repulsin, which is why prtns d nt repel each ther inside the nucleus 5

7 Marr Cllege Physics Department Higher Physics Summary Ntes Particles and Waves The weak nuclear frce is invlved in radiactive beta decay The weak frce changes a neutrn t a prtn by rearranging the quark structure An electrn (beta particle) is released, alng with the electrn neutrin This is written as the nuclear equatin n p e where e is the symbl fr the electrn neutrin The electrmagnetic frce hlds the electrn t its atm. The thery f the electrmagnetic frce and the generatin f electrmagnetic waves was develped by Scttish Physicist James Clark Maxwell in the 19 th Century and is cnsidered ne f the greatest achievements in physics The frce f gravity hlds bjects made f mass tgether, and keeps mns, planets, stars and galaxies tgether and in rbit At the subatmic level, gravity is much, much weaker than the ther three frces As stated abve. Einstein s Thery f General Relativity (an extensin f Newtn s Thery f Gravitatin) describes perfectly hw gravity wrks n the scale f planets, stars and galaxies The effects f gravity cannt be explained using the current Standard Mdel One f the great gals f physics is t integrate gravity int the Standard Mdel The diagram shwn belw als prvides a useful summary f the main features f the standard mdel, with the symbls fr the particles included. 6

8 Marr Cllege Physics Department Higher Physics Summary Ntes Particles and Waves Higgs Bsn (fr interest nly) There is a bsn missing frm the diagram abve The Higgs bsn is a frce-carrying particle which has the effect f giving particles mass It was first prpsed t exist in a thery develped in the 1960s and 1970s by a variety f theretical physicists including Peter Higgs Previus particle acceleratrs built befre the Large Hadrn Cllider at CERN in Switzerland culd nt achieve the phenmenally high energies required t prvide evidence fr the Higgs Bsn In March 2013, physicists at CERN annunced that they had fund evidence fr the existence f the Higgs Bsn Peter Higgs and Françis Englert were awarded the 2013 Nbel Prize fr Physics fr their theretical discvery f a fundamental particle f vital imprtance t ur understanding f the Universe Once again, physics prpsed via thery was supprted by evidence frm experiment and with excellent agreement 7

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