1.4 The Tools of the Trade!
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1 1.4 The Tools of the Trade! Two things are required for material analysis: excitation mechanism for originating characteristic signature (radiation) radiation detection and identification system (spectroscopy) For dating techniques you need either: measurement of activity A(t) counting of radioactive atoms N(t)
2 Accelerators for Excitation Processes Required energy transfer for atomic processes: E 1 kev-5 MeV Required energy transfer for nuclear processes: E 1 MeV-15 MeV Two kind of accelerators are in use: cyclotron Van de Graaff
3 Technical Principle of the cyclotron Ion Source Period T for particle with mass m and charge q in magnetic field B: T = 2 π m q B Energy of particle in cyclotron of radius R: V Acceleration across Voltage gap V between the Dees: E=q V E 1 2 q B R = m v = 2 2 m E < 20 MeV (relativistic effects) sufficient for material analysis.
4 Technical Principle of the Van de Graaff potential: U = Q with Q = charge and C = capacity C Energy: E = mv = qu ; with 7 U up to V: E q 10 ev = 10 q MeV Sufficient energy for necessary excitation mechanisms!
5 The single-ended Van de Graaff 1. charging system 2. Belt 3. Terminal charge pick-up 4. High pressure N 2 /CO 2 gas vessel 5. Ion source 6. Acceleration tube 7. Vacuum tube 8. Generating voltmeter 9. Analyzing magnet 10. Target system
6 Advantage of ion-source at ground The Tandem Accelerator Terminal potential V term Ion-source Total energy: E=(1+q)V term
7 The smallest and the largest Zürich tandem for 14 C analysis Holifield tandem (ORNL) for 36 Cl analysis
8 Material analysis Typical Accelerator Laboratory for Material Analysis and Dating beamproduction Mass analysis or dating
9 Electron Beam Production Electron beam electron source negative potential Release of electrons by filament heating, -light-bulbextraction and acceleration through electric fields U positive potential 1 2 Ee = mv e e = e U 2
10 Ion Beam Production by Sputter Source Sputtering & charge exchange Extraction and focusing E ion 100 kev
11 Signatures through reaction processes A(a,b)B A(a,γ)C A(a,a)A A(a,a )A* (in-) elastic scattering characteristic particle energy characteristic X-ray radiation characteristic γ-ray radiation nuclear reaction processes characteristic γ-radiation characteristic particle break-up
12 Some background The probability for a reaction to occur is the cross-section σ! R probability for incoming beam to hit a target nucleus with radius R: σ πr 2 Typical radius of nucleus m cross section area, unit barn: 1 barn = cm 2
13 Total probability for reaction Yield If target has thickness d, and target material has # nuclei/volume: n 0 [part./cm 3 ] Y=σ n 0 d The yield gives the intensity of the characteristic signal from the reaction process per incoming particle with the cross section σ! It also gives the number of reaction products per incoming particle!
14 Example: Cosmic ray bombardment of air produces the radioisotope 14 C by the 14 N(n,p) 14 C reaction. Calculate the number of produced 14 C assuming an average 14 N density of part/cm 3 along the cosmic ray path length of 1.0 km, a reaction cross section of σ=0.1barn and a cosmic ray induced neutron flux of /cm 2 s Y( C) = σ n( N) d = 01. [ barn] 5 10 [ part/ cm ] 1[ km] Y( C) = 1 10 [ cm ] 5 10 [ part / cm ] 10 [ cm] = 05. / neutron a cosmic ray flux of [ neutrons / cm s] 14 2 [ C/ cm s] 12 2 for entire surface area of earth: S = [ cm ] C 3 2 yields a total production rate of: production of: [ C s] = [ Cy] = 102. [ g/ y]
15 Another Example Estimate the number of 14 C atoms produced in the mummy of Ramses II by 3290 years of cosmic ray bombardment! Cosmic ray flux at ground level of ~ particles/m 2 s. Adopt a cross section of σ = 0.1 barn for 14 N(n,p) 14 C. The mummy contains N particles & C particles.
16 Estimate of 14 C production & 14 C content Production: use standard production equation! Y( C) = σ [ barn] N( N) I [ particles m s] t Y( C) = [ cm ] [ particles m s] 3290[ y] Y( C) = [ cm ] [ particles cm s] [ s] Y( C) = cosmic particles are produced in the mummy. Content: use standard decay equation! N N N are ( t ) = (3290 (3290 N 0 y ) y ) contained e = = λ t in the e 15 ln mummy! 3290 y C y particles
17 Absorption and Transmission I 0 I(d) Absorption and transmission of the initial beam with intensity I 0 depends on the target thickness d and total interaction cross section σ tot = σ i for all possible reactions between projectiles and target material of cross section σ i: d Id ( ) = I e 0 µ = n σ 0 i µ d i
18 Cosmic Ray Absorption in Atmosphere µ Id ( ) = I e d ; µ = n σ 0 0 i How many of the /cm 2 neutrons produced at 12 km height will reach the surface of the earth assuming an average nitrogen density of part/cm 3 and an interaction cross section of 0.1 barn? i 2 I ( 12km) = [n / cm s] e I n n 2 ( 12km) = 53. [n / cm s] [ N/ cm ] [ cm ] [ cm]
19 Interaction processes between projectile and target material atomic excitation processes X-ray-visible light (Coulomb Interaction between projectile and atomic electrons): elastic scattering processes (mechanical momentum without energy transfer): σ i [kbarn] char. particle energies inelastic scattering processes char. γ-radiation (mechanical momentum and energy transfer): radiative capture reactions char. γ-radiation (Coulomb Interaction between projectile and atomic nucleus): nuclear reaction processes (Strong Interaction between projectile and atomic nucleus): σ i [barn] σ i [barn] σ i [µbarn] char. particle radiation σ i [mbarn]
20 Radiation Detectors Radiation detectors are based on material which shows a high probability (cross section) for interacting with a particular kind of radiation (in a particular energy range)! The interaction process initiates an excitation or ionisation event in the material (e.g. atomic excitation, or solid state excitation) which results in light or particle emission which in turn can be used for generating an electrical pulse for analyzing and interpreting the event in the data acquisition electronics. There are three kind of detector materials: Scintillator Solid State Detector Ionisation Chamber X-ray, γ-ray, and neutron radiation particle- and γ-ray radiation particle radiation
21 Example: NaI scintillator Photons in the visible light range are created by excitation of NaI material with radiation photons are absorbed on photo cathode and generate free electrons by photo-effect electrons are multiplied in photo multiplier and converted to an electrical signal
22 Ionization chamber and semiconductor detectors Detectors are based on the principle of ionization along the track of energetic charged particle, production of ionelectron pairs, which are accelerated by attached electrical fields to anode or cathode pole of detector, charge pulse is converted in electrical pulse, pulse height corresponds to energy loss of initial energetic particle.
23 Summary Tools are needed to instigate the characteristic excitation processes by energy transfer Tools are needed to analyze the characteristic light or radiation signatures
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