At lunch with the largest particle accelerator in the world

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1 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 1 At lunch with the largest particle accelerator in the world Dr David Cockerill Group Leader for Calorimetry Particle Physics Department Rutherford Appleton Laboratory Chilton, Oxon

2 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 2 Outline of talk Introduction CERN The Large Hadron Collider - the world s largest particle accelerator The Compact Muon Solenoid Detector Physics Conclusions and questions

3 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 3 Introduction The Standard model of particle physics has been brilliantly successful but important questions remain

4 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 4 The Standard model describes Introduction how particles interact how different particles behave how the forces between particles are manifested Embarrassingly, however, it cannot be used to calculate or predict the masses of any of the fundamental particles It needs over 25 constants to be hand plugged into the theory from experiment. Where do these constants come from in nature? We hardly have a Theory of Everything without including gravity and the strong force New experimental data is badly needed, and for that we need a new and extremely powerful accelerator

5 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 5 Welcome to the world s largest particle accelerator Introduction the Large Hadron Collider at CERN The LHC will bring protons into head-on collisions at higher energies than ever achieved before Penetrate further into the structure of matter to m Recreate the conditions prevailing in the early universe seconds after the start of the "Big Bang Equivalent to a temperature of o K

6 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 6 C.E.R.N. CERN Geneva proposal by Louis de Broglie founded Now called the European Organization for Nuclear Research - the world's largest particle physics centre 20 European member states plus 34 observer and non-member states Where the World Wide Web was born! Tim Berners-Lee

7 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 7 The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) Jura mountains LHC, 27 km in circumference Lake Geneva Geneva airport Michelin star restaurant! France CERN main site Switzerland

8 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 8 The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) Alps and Mont Blanc Jura mountains A section of the LHC tunnel get on your moped! LHC tunnel The LHC is sited in a tunnel 100m underground The tunnel contains the worlds longest vacuum pipe within which the protons travel

9 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 9 The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) The protons are guided around the tunnel by T superconducting dipole magnets, each 15m long P P Counter rotating proton beams A dipole magnet in operation at the LHC 3 dipole magnets (blue) under test

10 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 10 The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) The power of the LHC accelerator is enormous. Imagine using a car battery of 12V to accelerate a proton. The proton would gain a kinetic energy of E = q. V = = 12 ev + 12V - Proton P + We now need some Greek to put the LHC in context: 1 kev = 1000 ev 1 MeV = 10 6 ev 1 GeV = 10 9 ev 1 TeV = ev The LHC accelerates protons to 7 TeV on 7 TeV You would need 583 billion 12 volt batteries to compete!

11 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 11 The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) A 7 TeV proton from the LHC could knock a mosquito over Inside the LHC p p Protons are bunched together in groups of in a volume ~ 20µm x 20 µm x 10cm 2 x 2835 bunches, counter rotating at near the speed of light Each bunch is 25 times smaller than a human hair The bunches must be aimed head on!

12 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 12 Collisions at the LHC 2835 Bunches/Beam Protons/Bunch I B = 0.6A Ebeams = 360 MJ Emagnets = 600 MJ, Total 1 GJ!! 7.5 m (25 ns) Bunch Crossings Hz Proton Collisions 10 9 Hz!!! Parton Collisions New Particle Production 10 5 Hz (Higgs, SUSY,...) Z p H µ µẕ + µ + µ - p p q q e - q~ g ~ ~ χ 0 2 ~ q ν e χ 1 - q p µ + µ χ~ 1 0

13 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 13 LHC Detectors General-purpose The LHC General-purpose

14 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 14 CMS Compact Muon Solenoid Total weight Diameter t 15m Outer barrel rings each 1300t Length 21.6m Mag. field 4 Tesla Central barrel ring 1840 Scientists 167 Institutions worldwide Note the person! Endcap disks

15 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 15 CMS Compact Muon Solenoid B = 4 Tesla

16 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 16 CMS Compact Muon Solenoid 4 Tesla field ~ 10 5 times the strength of earth s magnetic field Amount of iron in the magnet return yoke equals that used to build the Eiffel Tower in Paris The energy stored in the CMS magnet when running at 4 Tesla could be used to melt 18 tonnes of solid gold

17 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 17 CMS - Compact Muon Spectrometer LHC beams 100m underground The surface building for the pre-assembly of CMS and the LHC access shafts

18 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 18 CMS - Compact Muon Spectrometer Outer vacuum tank Inner vacuum tank Outer barrel rings Surveyor! Trial insertion of the inner vacuum tank for the 4T solenoid

19 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 19 CMS - Compact Muon Spectrometer Iron for magnetic field return Solenoid goes In here! Outer barrel ring slots for detectors Completed inner vacuum vessel insertion test An endcap disk equiped with muon detectors

20 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 20 CMS - Compact Muon Spectrometer PX56 shaft. Excavators hit the water table at about 40m deep and it is not easy to dig through water! 2000t lowering crane from Rotterdam Solution: small-bore pipes around shaft (down to below the water level) Circulate salt-water at ~-5 o C for several months Replace the salt-water with liquid nitrogen to freeze the water in the shaft Dig-out the water and concrete the shaft!

21 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 21 The Underground Areas 20m CMS cavern Electronics readout cavern

22 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 22 CMS Compact Muon Solenoid LHC proton collision point Could fit the Nave of Canterbury Cathedral in the CMS cavern The CMS Underground cavern

23 Particle interactions in CMS University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 23

24 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 24 Storing the data from the collisions During one second of CMS running, a data volume equivalent to 10,000 Encyclopaedia Britannicas is recorded The data rate handled by the CMS event builder (~500 Gbit/s) is equivalent to the amount of data currently exchanged by the world's Telecom networks The total number of processors in the CMS event filter equals the 4000 workstations at CERN today

25 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 25 Physics And now for a bit of Einstein: E = m c 2 If the energy available to make new particles at the accelerator is E = 1 ev we can create particles up to a mass of 1 ev/c 2 Electron mass m e = ev/c 2 Proton mass m p = ev/c 2 ~ 1 GeV/c 2 Why is the proton 1876 times more massive than the electron??

26 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 26 Origin of mass - the Higgs mechanism Simplest theory all particles are massless!! A field pervades the universe Particles interacting with this field acquire mass the stronger the interaction the larger the mass The field is a quantum field the quantum is the Higgs boson Finding the Higgs particle establishes the presence of the field

27 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 27 Physics What can the LHC find? E LHC = 2 x 7 TeV = 14,000 GeV so LHC can theoretically create particles with masses up to 14,000 GeV/c2 ~14,000 times the mass of the proton but in reality: only up to ~2000 times the mass of the proton Theoretically favoured new particles, such as the Higgs boson, are thought to have masses of times that of the proton within reach of the LHC! However the Higgs boson is only expected to appear in just one in collisions, equivalent to one per day at 800 million collisions per second

28 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 28 Physics in CMS Computer simulation of a proton-proton collision in CMS with the creation of a Higgs particle Could this be what we will see with the first collisions in 2007/8?

29 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 29 Interactions with you! Visit CERN

30 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 30 Conclusions The LHC will be largest particle accelerator in the world when it comes on line in 2007/8 It promises to open up hitherto unreachable areas of particle physics and could be the seed for a revolution in our understanding of the Universe

31 Additional Info University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 31

32 Evolution after the big bang University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 32

33 Seeing the Higgs University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 33

34 Seeing the Higgs University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 34

35 Seeing the Higgs University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 35

36 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 36 Some particle physics Leptons and quarks are believed to be fundamental particles e.g. electrons muons neutrinos Hadrons are made of quarks, e.g. p = uud Λ 0 = uds Baryons Λ 0 b = udb π + = ud Ψ = cc Υ = bb Mesons

37 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 37 Particle Physics The colours are incidental!

38 Particle Physics University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 38

39 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 39 Some particle physics A proton is not, in fact, simply made from three quarks (uud) There are actually 3 valence quarks (uud) + a sea of gluons and short-lived quark-antiquark pairs

40 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 40 The Standard Model of Elementary Particle Physics Matter consists of half integral spin fermions. The strongly interacting fermions are called quarks. The fermions with electroweak interactions are called leptons. The uncharged leptons are called neutrinos. The forces are carried by integral spin bosons. The strong force is carried by 8 gluons (g), the electromagnetic force by the photon (γ), and the weak interaction by the W + Z o and W -. The g and γ are massless, while the W and Z have ~ 80, 91 GeV mass. J = 1 g,γ, W +,Z o,w - Force Carriers u d c s t b 2/3-1/3 Quarks J = 1/2 Q/e= e ν e µ ν µ τ 1 ν τ 0 Leptons

41 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 41 Electro - Weak Unification The weak interactions are responsible for nuclear beta decay. The observed rates are slow, indicating weak effective coupling. The decays of the nuclei, n, and µ are parametrized as an effective 4 fermion interaction with coupling, G ~ 10-5 GeV -2, Γ µ ~ G 2 M µ5. The weak SU(2) gauge bosons, W + Z o W -, acquire a mass by interacting with the "Higgs boson vacuum expectation value" of the field, while the U(1) photon, γ, remains massless. M W ~ g W <φ> The SU(2) and U(1) couplings are "unified" in that e = g W sin(θ W ). The parameter θ W can be measured by studying the scattering of ν + p, since this is a purely weak interaction process. The coupling g W can be connected to G by noting that the 4 fermion Feynman diagram can be related to the effective 4 fermion interaction by the Feynman "propagator", G ~ g W2 /M W2. Thus, from G and sin(θ W ) one can predict M W. The result, M W ~ 80 GeV was confirmed at CERN in the pp collider. The vacuum Higgs field has <φ> ~ 250 GeV.

42 The Generation of Mass by the Higgs Mechanism University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 42 The vacuum expectation value of the Higgs field, <φ>, gives mass to the W and Z gauge bosons, M W ~ g W <φ>. Thus the Higgs field acts somewhat like the "ether". Similarly the fermions gain a mass by Yukawa interactions with the Higgs field, m f = g f <φ>. Although the couplings are not predicted, the Higgs field gives us a compact mechanism to generate all the masses in the Universe. H g f, W, Z f, W, Z Γ(H->ff) ~ g f2 M H ~ g 2 (M f /M W ) 2 M H, g = g W Γ(H->WW) ~ g 2 M H3 /M W2 ~ g 2 (M H /M W ) 2 M H Γ ~ M H3 or Γ/M H ~ M H2 ==> Γ/M H ~ M H ~ 1 TeV

43 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 43 Higgs Cross section CDF and D0 successfully found the top quark, which has a cross section ~ the total cross section. A 500 GeV Higgs has a cross section ratio of ~ 10-11, which requires great rejection power against backgrounds and a high luminosity.

44 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 44 Unification of fundamental forces Magnetism Quantum Gravity? Super Unification Grand Unification Electroweak Model SUSY? Standard model QCD QED Electro magnetism Maxwell Weak Theory Universal Gravitation Einstein, Newton Galilei Long range Electricity Fermi Weak Force Short range Nuclear Force Kepler Short range Celestial Gravity Long range Terrestrial Gravity Theories: STRINGS? RELATIVISTIC/QUANTUM CLASSICAL

45 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 45 The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) The counter rotating proton beams are brought into collision at four experimental collision points around the LHC: At CMS LHCb ATLAS ALICE

46 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 46 The two Giants! ATLAS A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS CMS Compact Muon Solenoid µ µ

47 Puzzle Fi nd 4 straight tracks. University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 47

48 University of Canterbury, 9/3/05 D.J.A. Cockerill Rutherford Appleton Laboratory 48 Answer Make a cut on the Transverse momentum Of the tracks: p T >2 GeV

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