On the distribution of primes. On the distribution of primes
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2 Integers..., 2, 1, 0, 1, 2,...
3 Integers..., 2, 1, 0, 1, 2,... Leopold Kronecker ( ) Integers were created by God, the rest is human labor.
4 +/ Adding is easy / multiplying is difficult.
5 +/ Adding is easy / multiplying is difficult. Today, we don t even know nontrivial lower bounds for the complexity of multiplication.
6 +/ Adding is easy / multiplying is difficult. Today, we don t even know nontrivial lower bounds for the complexity of multiplication. Trivially, multiplying two n-digit integers takes O(n 2 ) steps. Best known bound is O(n log(n) log(log(n)).
7 Primes Definition A positive integer p 2 is called prime if it is divisible only by itself and 1.
8 Primes Definition A positive integer p 2 is called prime if it is divisible only by itself and 1. Example primes: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,.... not primes: 1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15,....
9 Properties Theorem Every positive integer is a product of prime factors n = p 1 p r. These prime factors are uniquely determined, up to permutation.
10 Properties Theorem Every positive integer is a product of prime factors n = p 1 p r. These prime factors are uniquely determined, up to permutation. Proof: Use Euclidean algorithm. Example 6 = 2 3, 12 = 2 2 3, 32 =
11 Euclid, 325 BC Theorem There are infinitely many primes. Proof by contradiction. Assume that there are finitely many primes p 1,..., p n. None of these can divide the number p 1 p 2... p n + 1. Thus there exists another prime. Contradiction to the assumption.
12 888 AD., Bodleian Library, Oxford
13 Logarithmus: John Napier( ) Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio (1614) log(a b) = log(a) + log(b)
14 Logarithmus: John Napier( ) Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio (1614) log(a b) = log(a) + log(b) Napier: Logarithms are artificial numbers and antilogarithms - natural numbers.
15 Tables for log(n) 1617 H. Briggs: n A. Vlacq: n G. Vega: logarithms of primes 10000
16 81 LOGARITHMENTAFELN GAUSS TÄGLICHES ARBEITSGERÄTH Abb. 10 Gauß erste Logarithmentafel, ein Geschenk des braunschweigischen Herzogs Carl Wilhelm Ferdinand an den Vierzehnjährigen (D 2)
17 G. Vega: Thesaurus logarithmorum completus Bestseller: more than 100 editions.
18 G. Vega: Thesaurus logarithmorum completus Bestseller: more than 100 editions. Gauss (1851) Vega scheint sich nun mit der Hoffnung geschmeichelt zu haben, dass seine Tafeln fast fehlerfrei geworden seien, und verspricht, für die erste Anzeige eines Fehlers eine Prämie von einem Dukaten zu bezahlen.... Unter 568 geprüften irrationalen Logarithmen haben sich 301 als richtig und 267 als unrichtig ausgewiesen. Dürfte man dies Verhältnis als durchschnittlich zutreffend betrachten, so würden unter den irrationalen Logarithmen des Vega schen Thesaurus... nach der Wahrscheinlichkeit etwa fehlerhafte anzunehmen sein.
19 Distribution of primes Definition pi(x) := number of primes less than or equal to x.
20 Distribution of primes Definition pi(x) := number of primes less than or equal to x. The pi-function for small values x pi(x)
21 The pi-function for x 100
22 The pi-function for x 1000
23 The pi-function for x 10 million
24 Problem Goal: Find a simple formula for the pi-function.
25 pi-function and the logarithm
26 pi-function and x/ log(x)
27 pi-function divided by x/ log(x)
28 pi-function and integral-log for x 1000 Intlog(x) := x 2 1 log(t) dt
29 pi-function and integral-log for x 10000
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34 Letter to Encke / 1849 My distinguished friend, Your remarks concerning the frequency of primes were of interest to me in more ways than one. You have reminded me of my own endeavors in this field which began in the very distant past, in 1792 or 1793, after I had acquired the Lambert supplements to the logarithmic tables. Even before I had begun my more detailed investigations into higher arithmetic, one of my first projects was to turn my attention to the decreasing frequency of primes, to which end I counted the primes in several chiliads and recorded the results on the attached white pages. I soon recognized that behind all of its fluctuations, this frequency is on the average inversely proportional to the logarithm, so that the number of primes below a given bound n is approximately equal to dn log(n), where the logarithm is understood to be hyperbolic.
35 Letter to Encke / 1849 Later on, when I became acquainted with the list in Vega s tables (1796) going up to , I extended my computation further, confirming that estimate. In 1811, the appearance of Chernau s cribrum gave me much pleasure and I have frequently (since I lack the patience for a continuous count) spent an idle quarter of an hour to count another chiliad here and there; although I eventually gave it up without quite getting through a million. Only some time later did I make use of the diligence of Goldschmidt to fill some of the remaining gaps in the first million and to continue the computation according to Burkhardt s tables. Thus (for many years now) the first three million have been counted and checked against the integral.
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66 B. Riemann 1849 ζ(s) := s s n s +... = p (1 + 1 p s + 1 p 2s +...) = p p s
67 B. Riemann 1849 ζ(s) := s s n s +... = p (1 + 1 p s + 1 p 2s +...) = p p s Analytic properties of this function carry information about the distribution of primes.
68 B. Riemann 1849 ζ(s) := s s n s +... = p (1 + 1 p s + 1 p 2s +...) = p p s Analytic properties of this function carry information about the distribution of primes. Riemann Conjecture All nontrivial zeroes of this function have real part R(s) = 1/2.
69 Manuscript by B. Riemann
70 Manuscript by B. Riemann
71 Primes in arithmetic progressions Green-Tao (2004) The set of primes contains arithmetic progressions of arbitrary length. Beispiel 5, 11, 17, 23, 29 7, 37, 67, 97, 127, , 409, 619, 829, 1039, 1249, 1459, 1669, 1879, 2089
72 Open questions Are there infinitely many prime twins: 11, 13 or 17, 19,...? Is every even number a sum of two primes? Are there infinitely many primes of the form n 2 + 1?
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