Transmission Electron Microscopy

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1 L. Reimer H. Kohl Transmission Electron Microscopy Physics of Image Formation Fifth Edition el Springer

2 Contents 1 Introduction Transmission Electron Microscopy Conventional Transmission Electron Microscopy High-Resolution Electron Microscopy Analytical Electron Microscopy Energy-Filtering Electron Microscopy High-Voltage Electron Microscopy Dedicated Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy Alternative Types of Electron Microscopy Emission Electron Microscopy Reflection Electron Microscopy Mirror Electron Microscopy Scanning Electron Microscopy X-ray and Auger-Electron Microanalysis Scanning-Probe Microscopy Particle Optics of Electrons Acceleration and Deflection of Electrons Relativistic Mechanics of Electron Acceleration Deflection by Magnetic and Electric Fields Electron Lenses Electron Trajectories in a Magnetic Lens Field Optics of an Electron Lens with a Bell-Shaped Field Special Electron Lenses Lens Aberrations Classification of Lens Aberrations Spherical Aberration Astigmatism and Field Curvature Distortion Coma... 37

3 X Contents Anisotropic Aberrations Chromatic Aberration Correction of Aberrations and Microscope Alignment Correction of Astigmatism Correction of Spherical and Chromatic Aberrations Microscope Alignment Wave Optics of Electrons Electron Waves and Phase Shifts De Broglie Waves Probability Density and Wave Packets Electron-Optical Refractive Index and the Schrödinger Equation Electron Interferometry and Coherence Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction Huygens' Principle and Fresnel Diffraction Fresnel Fringes Fraunhofer Diffraction Mathematics of Fourier Transforms Wave-Optical Formulation of Imaging Wave Aberration of an Electron Lens Wave-Optical Theory of Imaging Elements of a Transmission Electron Microscope Electron Guns Physics of Electron Emission Energy Spread Gun Brightness Thermionic Electron Guns Schottky Emission Guns Field-Emission Guns The Illumination System of a TEM Condenser-Lens System Electron-Probe Formation Illumination with an Objective Prefield Lens Specimens Useful Specimen Thickness Specimen Mounting Specimen Manipulation The Imaging System of a TEM Objective Lens Imaging Modes of a TEM Magnification and Calibration Depth of Image and Depth of Focus Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM)

4 Contents XI Scanning Transmission Mode of TEM Dedicated STEM Theorem of Reciprocity Electron Spectrometers and Imaging Energy Filters Postcolumn Prism Spectrometer Wien Filter Imaging Energy Filter Operating Modes with Energy Filtering Image Recording and Electron Detection Fluorescent Screens Photographic Emulsions Imaging Plate Detector Noise and Detection Quantum Efficiency Low-Light-Level and Charge-Coupled-Device ( CCD) Cameras Semiconductor and Scintillation Detectors Faraday Cages Electron Specimen Interactions Elastic Scattering Cross Section and Mean Free Path Energy Transfer in an Electron Nucleus Collision Elastic Differential Cross Section for Small-Angle Scattering Total Elastic Cross Section Inelastic Scattering Electron Specimen Interactions with Energy Loss Differential Cross Section for Single-Electron Excitation Bethe Surface and Compton Scattering Approximation for the Total Inelastic Cross Section Dielectric Theory and Plasmon Losses in Solids Surface-Plasmon Losses Energy Losses by Inner-Shell Ionization Position and Shape of Ionization Edges Inner-Shell Ionization Cross Sections Energy-Loss Near-Edge Structure (ELNES) Extended Energy-Loss Fine Structure (EXELFS) Linear and Circular Dichroism Multiple-Scattering Effects Angular Distribution of Scattered Electrons Energy Distribution of Transmitted Electrons Electron-Probe Broadening by Multiple Scattering Electron Diffusion, Backscattering, and Secondary-Electron Emission

5 XII Contents 6 Scattering and Phase Contrast for Amorphous Specimens Scattering Contrast Transmission in the Bright-Field Mode Dark-Field Mode Examples of Scattering Contrast Improvement of Scattering Contrast by Energy Filtering Scattering Contrast in the STEM Mode Measurement of Mass Thickness and Total Mass Phase Contrast The Origin of Phase Contrast Defocusing Phase Contrast of Supporting Films Examples of Phase Contrast Theoretical Methods for Calculating Phase Contrast Imaging of a Scattering Point Object Relation between Phase and Scattering Contrast Imaging of Single Atoms Imaging of Single Atoms in TEM Imaging of Single Atoms in the STEM Mode Contrast-Transfer Function (CTF) The CTF for Amplitude and Phase Specimens Influence of Energy Spread and Illumination Aperture The CTF for Tilted-Beam and Hollow-Cone Illumination Contrast Transfer in STEM Phase Contrast by Inelastically Scattered Electrons Improvement of the CTF Inside the Microscope Control of the CTF by Optical or Digital Fourier Transform Electron Holography Fresnel and Fraunhofer In-Line Holography Single-Sideband Holography Off-Axis Holography Reconstruction of Off-Axis Holograms Image Restoration and Specimen Reconstruction General Aspects Methods of Optical Analog Filtering Digital Image Restoration Alignment by Cross-Correlation Averaging of Periodic and Aperiodic Structures Three-Dimensional Reconstruction Stereometry Electron Tomography

6 Contents XIII 6.8 Lorentz Microscopy Lorentz Microscopy and Fresnel Diffraction Imaging Modes of Lorentz Microscopy Imaging of Electrostatic Specimen Fields Theory of Electron Diffraction Fundamentals of Crystallography Bravais Lattice and Lattice Planes The Reciprocal Lattice Construction of Laue Zones Kinematical Theory of Electron Diffraction Bragg Condition and Ewald Sphere Structure Amplitude and Lattice Amplitude Column Approximation Dynamical Theory of Electron Diffraction Limitations of the Kinematical Theory Formulation of the Dynamical Theory as a System of Differential Equations Formulation of the Dynamical Theory as an Eigenvalue Problem Discussion of the Two-Beam Case Dynamical Theory Including Absorption Inelastic-Scattering Processes in Crystals Absorption of the Bloch-Wave Field Dynamical n-beam Theory The Bethe Dynamical Potential and the Critical Voltage Effect Intensity Distribution in Diffraction Patterns Diffraction at Amorphous Specimens Intensity of Debye Scherrer Rings Influence of Thermal Diffuse Scattering Kikuchi Lines and Bands Electron Spectroscopic Diffraction Electron-Diffraction Modes and Applications Electron-Diffraction Modes Selected-Area Electron Diffraction (SAED) Electron Diffraction Using a Rocking Beam Electron Diffraction Using a Stationary Electron Probe Electron Diffraction Using a Rocking Electron Probe Further Diffraction Modes in TEM Some Uses of Diffraction Patterns with Bragg Reflections Lattice-Plane Spacings Texture Diagrams

7 XIV Contents Crystal Structure Crystal Orientation Examples of Extra Spots and Streaks Convergent-Beam Electron Diffraction (CBED) Determination of Point and Space Groups Determination of Foil Thickness Charge-Density Distributions High-Order Laue Zone (HOLZ) Patterns HOLZ Lines Large-Angle CBED Imaging of Crystalline Specimens and Their Defects Diffraction Contrast of Crystals Free of Defects Edge and Bend Contours Dark-Field Imaging Moire Fringes The STEM Mode and Multibeam Imaging Energy Filtering of Diffraction Contrast Transmission of Crystalline Specimens Calculation of Diffraction Contrast of Lattice Defects Kinematical Theory and the Howie Whelan Equations Matrix-Multiplication Method Bloch-Wave Method Planar Lattice Faults Kinematical Theory of Stacking-Fault Contrast Dynamical Theory of Stacking-Fault Contrast Antiphase and Other Boundaries Dislocations Kinematical Theory of Dislocation Contrast Dynamical Effects in Dislocation Images Weak-Beam Imaging Determination of the Burgers Vector Lattice Defects of Small Dimensions Coherent and Incoherent Precipitates Defect Clusters High-Resolution Electron Microscopy (HREM) of Crystals Lattice-Plane Fringes General Aspects of Crystal-Structure Imaging Methods for Calculating Lattice-Image Contrast Simulation, Matching, and Reconstruction of Crystal Images Measurement of Atomic Displacements in HREM Crystal-Structure Imaging with a Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope

8 Contents XV 9.7 Imaging of Atomic Surface Steps and Structures Imaging of Surface Steps in Transmission Reflection Electron Microscopy Surface-Profile Imaging Elemental Analysis by X-ray and Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy X-ray and Auger-Electron Emission X-ray Continuum Characteristic X-ray and Auger-Electron Emission X-ray Microanalysis in a Transmission Electron Microscope Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometry Energy-Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS) X-ray Emission from Bulk Specimens and ZAF Correction X-ray Microanalysis of Thin Specimens X-ray Microanalysis of Organic Specimens Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy Recording of Electron Energy-Loss Spectra Kramers Kronig Relation Background Fitting and Subtraction Deconvolution Elemental Analysis by Inner-Shell Ionizations Element-Distribution Images Elemental Mapping by X-Rays Element-Distribution Images Formed by Electron Spectroscopic Imaging Three-Window Method White-Line Method Correction of Scattering Contrast Limitations of Elemental Analysis Specimen Thickness Radiation Damage and Loss of Elements Counting Statistics and Sensitivity Resolution and Detection Limits for Electron Spectroscopic Imaging Specimen Damage by Electron Irradiation Specimen Heating Methods of Measuring Specimen Temperature Generation of Heat by Electron Irradiation Calculation of Specimen Temperature Radiation Damage of Organic Specimens Elementary Damage Processes in Organic Specimens Quantitative Methods of Measuring Damage Effects

9 XVI Contents Methods of Reducing Radiation Damage Radiation Damage and High Resolution Radiation Damage of Inorganic Specimens Damage by Electron Excitation Radiation Damage by Knock-On Collisions Contamination Origin and Sources of Contamination Methods for Decreasing Contamination Dependence of Contamination an Irradiation Conditions References Index

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