1 GSW Iterative Techniques for y = Ax
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- Hilary Hensley
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1 1 for y = A I m gong to cheat here. here are a lot of teratve technques that can be used to solve the general case of a set of smultaneous equatons (wrtten n the matr form as y = A), but ths chapter sn t gong to tal about all of the ones n ths boo. hs chapter only tals about the Jacob and Gauss-Sedel methods, and varatons on them. For the steepest descent method and the related method of conjugate gradents, see the net chapter. 1.1 he Jacob Iteratve Method he Jacob method s an teratve technque for solvng the square seres of smultaneous equatons y = A. he dea s to tae the matr A, and epress t as the sum of a matr of the dagonal elements, and a matr of all the other elements, E. For eample: A= 1 = + E= (0.1) It s very easy to nvert a matr that conssts only of dagonal elements: all you have to do s tae the nverse of the dagonal elements, for eample: = = (0.2) Wth ths decomposton (of A nto + E), we can wrte: y = A= ( + E) y E= = y E (0.) and note -1 y and -1 E are both easy to calculate, and only have to be calculated once at the start of the teraton process. he Jacob teraton starts wth an ntal guess at the value of, wrtten as [0], and then terates accordng to: [ n+ 1] = [ ] y E n (0.4) and these teratons are easy to calculate, snce s easy to nvert. For a wde-range of matrces A, ths teraton converges to the answer. he problem s t doesn t always wor, and t doesn t always converge very qucly Eample of the Jacob Method Consder the set of smultaneous lnear equatons wrtten n matr form as: 2007 ave Pearce Page 1 07/06/2007
2 = (0.5) hen start wth a guess at, perhaps = [0; 0; 0]. hs s the same matr A as dscussed above, so we have: = E= (0.6) and therefore: E= = (0.7) and y = = 0.5 (0.8) and these can be pre-computed before the teraton starts. he frst teraton then produces: [] 1 = = (0.9) the second teraton, then gves: [ 2] = = (0.10) the thrd gves: = = [ ] (0.11) and so on. he eact answer to ths problem s: 2007 ave Pearce Page 2 07/06/2007
3 2 1 1 = 1 1 = / (0.12) / and nowng ths, t s possble to eep trac of how well the algorthm s dong by calculatng the square error [n] 2 at each step. For the frst eght teratons, the results are: Vector [n] 1 Square Error [0] [ 0 0 0] [1] [ ] [2] [ ] [] [ ] [4] [ ] [5] [ ] [6] [ ] [7] [ ] [8] [ ] [ n] 2 (A remnder: the fnal answer should be [ 1 1/ 2/].) Convergence of the Jacob Method One problem wth the Jacob method s that t doesn t always wor. o see why, and to understand how the method wors at all, frst epress the result after n teratons [n] as the sum of the real answer, and an error term, e[n], so that: [ n ] = + [ ] hen, after the net teraton, the error term wll be: e n (0.1) [ n ] [ n ] e + 1 = + 1 [ n] = y E [ n] = y E Ee (0.14) but f s the real soluton, then: 1 Note I m wrtng ths as the transpose of a row vector snce ths format s easer to ft on the page. All vectors n ths boo, unless otherwse stated, are column vectors, so the transpose of a vector s a row vector ave Pearce Page 07/06/2007
4 = y E (0.15) so: [ n ] [ n] = Ee[ n] e + = Ee 1 (0.16) In other words, the effect of each teraton s to pre-multply the error vector e[n] by the matr -1 E. If the modulus of the largest egenvalue of -1 E s less than one, then ths teraton wll converge 2, and f all the egenvectors are very much smaller than one, then the teraton wll converge very rapdly. However, f at least one egenvalue of -1 E s equal to or greater than one, then ths method wll fal. A smple way to tell whether ths method wll wor for any gven matr A: f the modulus of the term on the man dagonal s greater than the sum of modul of the other terms n the row, then the teraton wll converge. In maths, ths crteron s: A > A j (0.17) j and a matr that satsfes ths crteron s nown as row dagonally domnant. he matr we used n the eample above: 2 1 A = 2 1 (0.18) 2 4 meets ths crteron (the egenvalues of -1 E n ths case are 0.68, 0.5 and 0.18, all have magntudes less than one). Now, suppose you were gven the set of equatons: 1= 2 + 1= = (0.19) and ased to solve them. Could you use Jacob teraton? Well, at frst glance you mght thn not, snce n matr notaton ths would gve: 2 hn of the error term as beng composed of components parallel to the egenvectors of -1 E. hen, each teraton results n multplyng each of these components by the correspondng egenvalue. If all the egenvalues are less than one, then ths wll result n a smaller error term, snce all the components are now smaller than they were. hs condton s suffcent, but not necessary. here are matrces that do not meet ths crteron, but whch stll converge to a soluton usng the Jacob method. he necessary condton s that the modul of all the egenvalues of -1 E are less than one ave Pearce Page 4 07/06/2007
5 = (0.20) and ths matr s not row dagonally domnant: for eample, the largest value n the second row s n the thrd column. And ndeed, t doesn t wor: the magntude of the largest egenvalue of ths matr s However, at second glance, you mght spot that all you have to do s swap the second and thrd equatons over, to get: 1= 2 + 1= = (0.21) and ths s now row-dagonally domnant. Jacob wll wor. Unfortunately, ths trc doesn t always wor. For eample, consder the equatons: = (0.22) he egenvectors of -1 E n ths case are 0.8, j and j. he absolute value of the second two egenvalues s greater than one (just), so the Jacob teraton technque wll fal to converge n ths case. We ll need to use somethng more powerful. 1.2 he Gauss-Sedel Iteratve Method Slghtly more complcated than the Jacob method, but very much along the same lnes, s the Gauss-Sedel method. he Gauss-Sedel method epresses the matr A as the sum of a dagonal matr, an upper trangular matr, and a lower trangular matr: A= 1 = U L= (0.2) (Note the trangular matrces U and L are conventonally defned as the negatve of the correspondng elements of A: the prevous equaton s the normal way of specfyng ths method.) Wth ths decomposton (of A nto U L), we can wrte: y = A= ( U L) ( ) y+ U= L ( ) ( = L y+ U ) (0.24) 2007 ave Pearce Page 5 07/06/2007
6 he Gauss-Sedel teraton starts wth an ntal guess of [0] at the value of, and then terates accordng to: ( ) [ n+ 1] = ( ) + [ ] L y U n (0.25) hs s a smlar approach to the Jacob method, ecept that now t appears we have to nvert the matr ( L), whch s not dagonal, rather than the dagonal matr. Surely that s much more dffcult to do? So what s the advantage of ths method? o answer that queston, I ll have to tal about the Jacob method n a bt more detal he Jacob Method Step-by-Step Consder what happens at each teraton step of the Jacob method: [ n] = [ ] y E n (0.26) o calculate the new vector [n+1], each element must be wored out n turn. For the th element, ths means calculatng: [ n+ ] = ( ) ( ) y E [ n ] (0.27) 1 whch s actually a lot easer than t loos. Frstly, snce s a dagonal matr, the nverse of s also dagonal, and has elements that are the nverse of the elements n. hs leads to: [ n 1] + = y E [ n] (0.28) and ths can be further smplfed by notng that s the dagonal elements of A, and E s the non-dagonal elements, so = A, and E = A ecept for E, whch s zero. So, we could wrte ths n terms of the orgnal matr A as: [ n 1] + = y A [ n] A (0.29) Now, bac to the Gauss-Sedel he Gauss-Sedel Method Step-by-Step Iteratons usually converge faster f the most recent values are used whenever possble. So, after calculatng the new frst element [n+1] 1, why not use ths value mmedately to calculate the net element [n+1] 2 rather than watng for the whole of the vector [n+1] to be calculated usng only the terms n the prevous vector [n]? hat s eactly what the Gauss-Sedel method does. After calculatng the frst element [n+1] 1, we replace the value of [n] 1 wth ths new value, and carry on, usng ths new vector wth a frst element of [n+1] 1, and all the elements those of [n]. hen, we use ths vector to calculate the second element [n+1] 2. (he result won t be the same as f the Jacob method was beng used, snce we re no longer startng wth the vector [n], we re usng ths strange new hybrd vector.) hat ll gve us a new second element. Replace the second element wth 2007 ave Pearce Page 6 07/06/2007
7 ths new value, and use ths new vector to calculate the thrd element n [n+1]. Repeat for all the elements, and for the net teraton go bac to the start and start over. In effect, we re dong: [ 1] y E [ n+ 1] E [ n] < n + = (0.0) at every step, where E s a matr of the non-dagonal elements n A, and s the matr of just the dagonal elements, just le before. Snce E s zero, we don t need to consder the term n the second summaton when =, and we could just wrte ths as: [ 1] y A [ n+ 1] A [ n] < > n + = A (0.1) hs s the only dfference between the Gauss-Sedel algorthm and the Jacob algorthm: wth the Gauss-Sedel algorthm, the new values of [n+1] are used as soon as they become avalable, you don t wat for all of the vector [n+1] to be calculated before startng to use any of the terms. If you re gong to derve the form of the Gauss-Sedel n terms of trangular and dagonal matrces, then t s much easer to start wth equaton (0.1) and note that the terms of A n whch < are just all the terms n the lower trangular matr, the one we ve called L. Lewse, the terms of A n whch > are the terms n the upper trangular matr, the one we ve called U. So: [ n 1] + = y + L [ n+ 1] + U [ n] (0.2) and snce we re now summng over the full range of n both cases, we can wrte ths n matr form: [ n ] + 1 = y + L[ n+ 1] + U[ n] (0.) whch wth a bt of algebrac manpulaton gves: [ n 1] ( ) ( + = L y+ U [ n]) (0.4) whch s dentcal to equaton (0.25). Although t loos more complcated, n fact t doesn t requre any more calculatons than the Jacob method Eample of the Gauss-Sedel Method ong the same eample as done n secton results n the followng seres of appromatons, and square errors. Note that the Gauss-Sedel n ths case converges much faster than the Jacob, due to the use of more recent nformaton n the algorthm. Vector [n] Square Error [ n] ave Pearce Page 7 07/06/2007
8 [0] [ 0 0 0] [1] [ ] [2] [ ] [] [ ] [4] [ ] [5] [ ] [6] [ ] [7] [ ] [8] [ ] Convergence of the Gauss-Sedel Method o wor out when the Gauss-Sedel method converges, we can proceed n the same way as for the smpler Jacob case above. Frst, epress [n] as the sum of the actual answer, and an error term, e[n], so that: [ n ] = + [ ] e n (0.5) hen, after the net teraton, the error term wll be: [ ] [ ] ( ) ( ) [ ] e n+ 1 = n+ 1 = L y+ L U n ( ) ( ) ( ) [ n] = L y+ L U + e (0.6) but f s the real soluton, then: ( ) ( ) 1 = L y+ L U (0.7) so: [ ] ( ) [ ] e n+ 1 = + L Ue n ( L) Ue[ n] = (0.8) So n ths case, the error term s pre-multpled by the matr ( L) -1 U after each teraton. hs mples that f the largest egenvalue of ( L) -1 U s less than one, then ths teraton wll converge, and agan, f all the egenvectors are very much smaller than one, then the teraton wll converge very rapdly. However, f at least one egenvector s equal to or greater than one, then ths method wll fal. Agan, a suffcent (but not necessary) condton for convergence s that the matr A s row dagonally domnant Comparson of the Gauss-Sedel and Jacob Methods he Gauss-Sedel s the more common and usually favoured method, for a number of reasons ave Pearce Page 8 07/06/2007
9 Frstly, and most mportantly, t tends to converge faster. hs s a result of usng the new nformaton (the updated values of the elements of the net estmate of ) as soon as they become avalable, and not watng for all the elements n the vector to be updated before usng any of them. Secondly, t doesn t requre as much storage space: the elements of the vector can be replaced one-by-one. hrdly, there are some matrces for whch Gauss-Sedel converges, but Jacob does not. (On the other hand, there are some matrces that Jacob does converge for, and Gauss-Sedel doesn t, but there are fewer of these. You ve got a better chance wth the Gauss-Sedel.) 1. Precondtonng Both the Jacob and the Gauss-Sedel methods only converge when the egenvectors of certan matrces ( -1 E n the case of Jacob and ( L) -1 U n the case of Gauss-Sedel) all have magntudes less than one. What f ths s not true? And how do you now, before you start the teratons, whether t s true or not? In general, fndng the egenvalues of matrces s not a trval tas. One soluton s to frst pre-multply the equatons by some other matr B, so we re actually tryng to solve the equatons: By = BA (0.9) If we now B, then calculatng By s easy, and ths leaves us wth a smlar problem to before, ecept that we ve now replaced the matr A wth BA. If we choose B so that BA has the requred propertes for convergence, then we can ensure that the teraton s successful. Unfortunately, fndng a sutable matr B to use s not always easy. One possblty s usng B = A H. hen, we re tryng to solve the equatons: H H A y = A A (0.40) A H A s a postve defnte matr, whch among other thngs means that the Gauss-Sedel teraton method s guaranteed to converge 4 (although t mght not converge very qucly). 1.4 Over-Relaaton Methods When the egenvalues of the matr that multples the error term at each teraton are all postve, then these methods wll converge to the correct soluton n a seres of steps, gettng closer to the soluton at each step. hat means that the correct soluton s always slghtly further away than the net step. So: why not jump a lttle further each tme? Instead of an teraton le: [ n 1] ( ) ( + = L y+ U [ n] ) (0.41) 4 he proof of ths s beyond the scope of ths chapter. See the chapter on Matr Propertes under postve defnte matrces for more nformaton about ths ave Pearce Page 9 07/06/2007
10 why not use: ( ) 1 [ 1 ] ( ) ( [ ]) n+ = w L y+ U n [ n] + [ n] (0.42) where the parameter w s greater than one? hen you re movng further than you would wth the Gauss-Sedel, and that mght get you closer to the correct soluton wth each teraton? hs s n general called over-relaaton, and n ths partcular case, the successve overrelaaton method. It can ncrease the speed of the convergence, at the epense of potentally mang the teratons unstable, and causng dvergence. Actually, equaton (0.42) s not the form most often used, because t s harder to calculate: t requres that all the elements of the vector [n] are avalable when tryng to calculate the vector [n + 1], and one of the man advantages of the Gauss-Sedel method over the Jacob s that t doesn t have to eep the last teraton, t can replace terms one-by-one. It s more usual to go bac to the teraton form: [ n 1] + = y + L [ n+ 1] + U [ n] (0.4) whch does not requre the entre vector [n] to be avalable to calculate [n+1], and multply the dfference between each term [n+1] and [n] as they are calculated by w: + [ n+ 1] + [ n] y L U [ n+ 1 ] = w [ n ] + [ n] (0.44) whch wth a bt of algebrac manpulaton, gves: 1 [ n+ 1 ] = ( w ) ( w + w [ n] + ( 1 w) ) L y U [ n ] (0.45) How to choose the best possble value of w s agan beyond the scope of ths chapter, however t s worth notng that values outsde the range 0 < w < 2 do not converge, and usng w = 1 s just equvalent to usng the Gauss-Sedel method. 1.5 utoral Questons 1) ry and solve the followng systems of equatons usng the Jacob and Gauss-Sedel teraton technques (MALAB or some other mathematcal program would be of great use for ths queston, but you could just calculate the eact soluton, and the result from the frst teraton step, and see f the error term gets smaller). Whch of them converge? a) b) = = ave Pearce Page 10 07/06/2007
11 c) = 2 d) = ) In cases where the Jacob and Gauss-Sedel approaches both converge, does the Gauss Sedel always converge faster? ) Prove that the over-relaaton form of the Gauss-Sedel equaton: can be smplfed to: + [ n+ 1] + [ n] y L U [ n+ 1 ] = w [ n ] + [ n] 1 [ n+ 1 ] = ( w ) ( w + w [ n] + ( 1 w) n ) L y U [ ] 4) he over-relaaton form n equaton (0.45) was derved from the Gauss-Sedel method. Can you use the same over-relaaton dea, only startng wth the Jacob method? If so, derve the equvalent equaton for ths case. 5) he Gauss-Sedel method s guaranteed to converge f the matr A s postve defnte. What about the Jacob method? oes ths always converge s A s postve defnte? (Ether a proof or an eample of a postve defnte A that does not converge usng the Jacob method wll be fne.) 6) For over-relaaton methods, when mght a value of w of less than one be a good dea? How could you calculate the mum value to use, and s t worth calculatng? 2007 ave Pearce Page 11 07/06/2007
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