Chapter Outline. The Ultimate Structure of Matter. The Library. Of What is the Universe Made? Reductionism. The Building Blocks of Matter

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1 Chapter Outline The Ultimate Structure of Matter Chapter 13 Of What is the Universe Made? Discovering Elementary Particles The Elementary Particle Zoo The Four Fundamental Forces Great Idea: All matter is made of quarks and leptons, which are the most fundamental building blocks of the universe that we know. The Library Of What is the Universe Made? Superficial description Fundamental building blocks Books Rules for organization Basic Words grammer Ultimate description Letters Spelling Reductionism Reductionism Ultimate building blocks How simplicity gives rise to complexity True nature Thought, experiment, observation The Building Blocks of Matter Fundamental building blocks Changed over time Atom Nuclei and electrons Elementary particles

2 Cosmic Rays Discovering Elementary Particles Cosmic Rays Particles emitted by stars Used to understand nucleus Found new elementary particles Particle Accelerators: The Essential Tool Particle Accelerator Artificial cosmic rays Ernest O. Lawrence cyclotron Synchrotron Linear accelerator Leptons, Hadrons, and Antimatter The Elementary Particle Zoo

3 Quarks and Leptons Quark Fundamental building blocks of hadrons Fractional electrical charge Only six kinds Leptons Six kinds Outside nucleus Quark Confinement Individual quarks No experimental isolation of a quark Elementary particles Difficult to isolate Which of the following are the fundamental building blocks of matter in the universe: A atoms and molecules B quarks and leptons C planets and stars D energy and waves The quest for the ultimate building blocks of the universe is referred to by philosophers as: A reductionism B science C atomism Which of the following lists has the items listed correctly from smallest to largest? A atom, quark, nucleus, neutron, molecule B neutron, quark, nucleus, atom, molecule C quark, neutron, nucleus, atom, molecule D nucleus, quark, neutron, atom, molecule E molecule, atom, nucleus, neutron, quark The main working part of a synchrotron is: A a large ring of magnets B a nuclear fusion generator C a flux capacitor D a diode

4 True or False: Moving charged particles are not affected by magnetic fields. A True B False Which elementary particle does not take part in holding together the nucleus? A antiparticle B hadron C lepton D All of the above take part Which type of elementary particle exists inside the nucleus? A Electron B Hadron C Lepton D All of the above exist in the nucleus True or False: For every particle in the universe, it is possible to produce an antiparticle. A True B False What does PET (as in PET scan) stand for? A patient electrocardio torture B positron emission tomography C patient electro transmission Which of the following is made from quarks? A hadrons B leptons C electromagnetic

5 Reviewing Subatomics Reviewing Subatomics Reviewing Subatomics Reviewing Subatomics Reviewing Subatomics Neutrinos are produced in the Weak Interaction, for example Neutrinos from the earth natural radioactivity Man-made neutrinos accelerators, nuclear power plants. Astrophysical neutrinos Solar neutrinos Atmospheric neutrinos Relic neutrinos left over from the big bang. Neutrino Factoids The earth receives about 40 billion neutrinos per second per cm 2 from the sun. About 100 times that amount are passing through us from the big bang. This works out to about 330 neutrinos in every cm 3 of the universe! By comparison there are about protons per cm 3 in the universe. Our body emits about 340 million neutrinos per day from 40 K. Neutrinos don t do much when passing through matter. Remember, it is very difficult to observe neutrinos.

6 Neutrino Detection The neutrino is observed by detecting the product of its interaction with matter. ν e ν μ Electron Muon True or False: Quarks have actually been isolated and observed in the laboratory. A True B False The Four Fundamental Forces The Four Fundamental Forces Force as an Exchange Forces cause matter to accelerate Gauge particle Produce fundamental forces Unified Field Theories Unified Field Theories Fundamental forces seen as different aspects of one force Four fundamental forces may be different aspects of a single force Electroweak force Standard model Theories of Everything

7 How many fundamental forces are there? A 2 B 4 C 6 D 11 E 21 iclicker Quesiton Which of the four fundamental forces is the strongest? A strong force B weak force C gravity D electromagnetic Which of the four fundamental forces is the weakest? A strong force B weak force C gravity D electromagnetic True or False: The search for a theory of everything will be accomplished in my lifetime. A True B False String Theory: the idea String Theory: the interactions All matter consists of small onedimensional objects (strings). Strings look like particles when not resolved closely enough All particle types are different normal modes of the string. All interactions consist of the splitting and joining of these elementary strings. This is currently the best description of the scattering of gravitational waves at very high energies! Looks like General Relativity plus other interactions at low energies. No parameters: string length sets units.

8 Possible Downsides At first sight there appeared to be a number of different kinds of string theories. Open, closed, heterotic, Type I, Type IIA,... Predicts we live in 10 spacetime dimensions! Experimental update: number of (large) dimensions = 4 Very difficult to experimentally test so far. Strings are so short that once the symmetries and spectrum are gotten right, most of the details are usually also right. Calculation gets known masses right, but.. experiment m exp = theory m th = D-Branes String theory is bigger than previously thought. Normally, open strings satisfy Neumann boundary conditions, string ends move at light speed. Dirichlet boundary conditions also make sense string ends live on a surface. This surface is interpreted as a large massive object, a D- brane, in spacetime, much like a monopole. Polchinski Why Do This? Good Things Happen if the theory has both strings and D-branes: Previously-hidden duality symmetries emerge, with all known string theories dual to one another under these symmetries! Some weakly-interacting string theories are the duals of the strong-coupling limit of others! Led to discoveries of similar symmetries amongst ordinary particle theories. Conjecture: all known string theories are different solutions to a more fundamental (11-dimensional) theory (M Theory). String Length and Gravity Arkani-Hamad, Dvali & Dimopoulos Could strings be as big as they can be: l s = l w? Non-gravitational physics is characterized by the weak scale: G F = l w2 = (10-3 fm) 2 If so, strings may be experimentally discovered tomorrow! If so, does this explain why l w is so much larger than l p = fm? ie: Why is gravity so weak? Why are stars so big? Gravity would be weak because the extra dimensions are large: If n = 2 then l s = l w requires a ~ 0.1 mm!! If n = 6 then l s = l w requires a ~ 10 5 fm, a = α l eff s l pl 2/n l s Intermediate-Scale Strings CB, Ibanez & Quevedo String Summary Q: Can l s and a be similar in size? A: Yes. l s / a = 0.01 works if: I: l s = (l w l p ) =10-11 fm. l w = l 2 s / l p naturally arises if supersymmetry breaks on another brane, and is transmitted to our brane by gravity. II: n = 6 extra dimensions. No heirarchy need be dialed in. Other nice things also happen if so: String axions can solve strong CP problem, neutrino masses similar to experiments, etc l pl α eff = l s a = 0.01 l w = l 2 pl 2 l s = α 2 l s eff a n String theory is the only known theory where gravity and quantum mechanics co-exist at high energies. Major Lesson of the 20 th Century: Relativity and Quantum mechanics are almost inconsistent, and so together impose extremely strong self-consistency conditions. The string length is likely much longer than the Planck length. Size Matters: much better prospects for comparison with experiments. The intermediate scale is well motivated on particlephysics grounds: l s = (l w l p ) =10-11 fm. We may all be Brane bound.

9 I find the idea that there might be 10 or 11 dimensions: A exciting B interesting C confusing D scary E nonsense

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