CS 6260 Applied Cryptography

Transcription

1 CS 6260 Applied Cryptography Symmetric encryption schemes A scheme is specified by a key generation algorithm K, an encryption algorithm E, and a decryption algorithm D. K K =(K,E,D) MsgSp-message space Alexandra (Sasha) Boldyreva Symmetric encryption, encryption modes, security notions. M K E C or A C K D M or Sender S Receiver R It is required that for every M MsgSp and every K that can be output by K, D(K,E(K,M))=M 1 2 Often the key generation algorithm simply picks a random string from some key space KeySp (e.g. {0,1} k for some integer k). In this case we will say that a scheme is defined by KeySp and two algorithms: =(KeySp,E,D) The encryption algorithm can be either randomized (take as input a random string) or stateful (take as input some state (e.g. counter) that it can update) Block cipher modes of operation Modes of operation define how to use a block cipher to encrypt long messages We will often assume that the message space consists of messages whose length is multiple of a block length 3 4

2 Eleonic Code Book (ECB) mode Let E:{0,1} k!{0,1} n!{0,1} n be a block cipher. ECB=({0,1} k,e,d): Encryption algorithm E M2 Mm Eleonic Code Book (ECB) mode algorithm (M) if ( M mod n 0 or M = 0) then return Break M into n-bit blocks Mm Ci (Mi) C return C Decryption algorithm D C2 C algorithm D K (C) if ( C mod n 0 or C = 0) then return Break C into n-bit blocks Mi EK 1 (Ci) M Mm return M M2 Mm 5 6 Cipher-block chaining (CBC) mode with random IV Let E:{0,1} k!{0,1} n!{0,1} n be a block cipher. CBC=({0,1} k,e,d): IV"{0,1} n IV M2 Mm Cipher-block chaining (CBC) mode with random IV algorithm (M) if ( M mod n 0 or M = 0) then return Break M into n-bit blocks Mm C0 IV {0, 1} n Ci (Ci 1 Mi) C return IV, C Decryption algorithm D IV IV C2 C algorithm D K ( IV, C ) if ( C mod n 0 or M = 0) then return Break C into n-bit blocks C0 IV Mi EK 1 (Ci) Ci 1) M Mm return M M2 Mm 7 8

3 Stateful Cipher-block chaining (CBC) mode with counter IV Stateful Cipher-block chaining (CBC) mode with counter IV Let E:{0,1} k!{0,1} n!{0,1} n be a block cipher. CBCC=({0,1} k,e,d): "0 n The counter is incremented for each new message Decryption algorithm D M2 C2 C2 Mm algorithm (M) static 0 if ( M mod n 0 or M = 0) then return Break M into n-bit blocks Mm if 2 n then return C0 IV n Ci (Ci 1 Mi) C + 1 return IV, C algorithm D K( IV, C ) if ( C mod n 0 or C = 0) then return Break C into n-bit blocks if IV + m > 2 n then return C0 IV Mi EK 1 (Ci) Ci 1) M Mm return M M2 Mm 9 10 Randomized counter mode (CTR) Let F:{0,1} k!{0,1} l!{0,1} L be a function family. CBC=({0,1} k,e,d): R"{0,1} l Decryption algorithm D R R R+1 R+2 R+m C2 M2 Mm R+1 R+2 R+m Randomized counter mode (CTR) algorithm (M) m M /L R {0, 1} l Pad (R + 1) (R + 2) (R + m) Pad the first M bits of Pad C M Pad C R C return C algorithm D K (C) if C < l then return Parse C into R C where R = l m C /L Pad (R + 1) (R + 2) (R + m) Pad the first C bits of Pad M C Pad return M C2 M2 Mm 11 12

4 Stateful counter mode (CTRC) Let F:{0,1} k!{0,1} l!{0,1} L be a function family. CBC=({0,1} k,e,d): is initially 0 l A current counter is maintained as a state m M2 Mm Stateful counter mode (CTRC) algorithm (M) static 0 m M /L If + m 2 l then return Pad ( + 1) ( + 2) ( + m) Pad the first M bits of Pad C M Pad + m return m, C Decryption algorithm D C m algorithm D K( i, C ) m C /L Pad (i + 1) (i + 2) (i + m) Pad the first C bits of Pad M Pad C return M C2 M2 Mm What is a secure encryption scheme? Recall, perfectly secure schemes are impractical We assume that adversaries are computationally bounded A scheme is secure when it is not insecure. Insecure = adversaries can do bad things. Bad things: an adversary, who sees ciphertexts can compute the secret key can compute some plaintexts can compute the first bit of a plaintext can compute the sum of the bits of a plaintext can see when equal messages are encrypted can compute... So what is a secure encryption scheme? Informally, an encryption scheme is secure if no adversary with reasonable resources who sees several ciphertexts can compute any* partial information about the plaintexts, besides some a-priori information. * Any information, except the length of the plaintexts. We assume the length of the plaintexts is public. Note, that the above implies that the bad things we mentioned do not happen. And the other bad things. While the above definition captures the right intuition, it s too informal to be useful

5 Indistinguishability under chosen-plaintext attacks Fix =(KeySp,E,D) K"KeySp For an adversary A and a bit b consider an experiment Exp ind-cpa-b (A) b d A M 0,M 1 Adv ind-cpa (A) = Pr LR(!,!,!) The experiment returns d The IND-CPA advantage of A is: Mb (LR(!,!,!)) A symmetric encryption scheme is indistinguishable under chosenplaintext attacks (IND-CPA secure) if for any adversary A with reasonable resources Adv ind-cpa (A) is small (close to 0). C=(Mb ) () Exp ind-cpa-1 (A) = 1 Experiment Exp ind-cpa-1 (A) K K d A EK(LR(,,1)) Return d Pr Exp ind-cpa-0 (A) = 1 Experiment Exp ind-cpa-0 (A) K K d A EK(LR(,,0)) Return d 17 Fix =(KeySp,E,D) K"KeySp A M 0,M 1 Alternative interpretation For an adversary A consider an experiment Exp ind-cpa-cg (A) Claim. b b LR(!,!,!) M b The experiment returns 1 iff A b =b EK() Adv ind-cpa (A) = 2 Pr Exp ind-cpa-cg (A) = 1 1. experiment, adversary is run with an oracle for wor Experiment Exp ind-cpa-cg (A) b {0, 1} ; K K b A EK(LR(,,b)) if b = b then return 1 else return 0 18 Proof of the claim Pr Exp ind-cpa-cg (A) = 1 = Pr = Pr = b = b = Pr b = b b = 1 Pr b = 1 + Pr b = b b = 0 Pr b = = Pr b = b b = Pr b = b b = = Pr b = 1 b = Pr b = 0 b = ) = Pr b = 1 b = ( 1 Pr b ) = 1 b = 0 ) 1 ( ) 2 ) = (Pr b = 1 b = 1 Pr b = 1 b = 0 ) 2 2 ( ) ( ( = ) 2 ( Pr Exp ind-cpa-1 (A) = 1 Pr Exp ind-cpa-0 (A) = 1 = Advind-cpa (A) Why IND-CPA ensures that no partial information is leaked? Fix =(KeySp,E,D) with MsgSp={0,1} m. Assume there exists an adversary B that after seeing a few plaintexts-cipertexts pairs and a challenge ciphertext can compute the challenge plaintext. Namely, in Experiment Exp pr-cpa (B) K K M {0, 1} m C (M ) M B EK( ) (C) If M = M then return 1 else return 0 Then is not IND-CPA secure. Claim. IND-CPA Fix =(KeySp,E,D) with MsgSp={0,1} m. Then for every adversary B there exists an adversary A such that Adv pr-cpa (B) Adv ind-cpa (A) m and q A = q B + 1,µ A = µ B + m,t A = t B = O(µ+ m + c) Adv pr-cpa (B) = Pr Exp pr-cpa (B) = 1 is non-negligible 19 20

6 Proof. We define A as follows: Adversary A EK(LR(,,b)) E We now analyze the adversary: Pr Pr M 0 {0, 1} m ; M 1 {0, 1} m C (LR(M 0, M 1, b)) Run adversary B on input C, replying to its oracle queries as follows When B makes an oracle query X to g do When B makes an oracle query X do Y (LR(X, X, b)) return Y to B as the answer When halts and outputs plaint When B halts and outputs a plaintext M If M = M 1 then return 1 else return 0 Exp ind-cpa-1 (A) = 1 Adv pr-cpa (B) S - - Exp ind-cpa-0 (A) = 1 2 m. Adv ind-cpa (A) = Pr Exp ind-cpa-1 (A) = 1 Pr Exp ind-cpa-0 (A) = 1 Adv pr-cpa (B) 2 m. The resources of A are justified by the description of A. Analysis of the ECB mode. Let E:{0,1} k!{0,1} n!{0,1} n be a block cipher. ECB=({0,1} k,e,d): Encryption algorithm E M2 C2 Conjecture. ECB is PR-CPA secure. Is ECB a good encryption scheme? Is ECB IND-CPA secure? Mm ECB is not IND-CPA Adversary A EK(LR(,,b)) M 1 0 2n ; M 0 0 n 1 n C2 (LR(M 0, M 1, b)) If = C2 then return 1 else return 0 Claim. Any deterministic, stateless scheme is not IND-CPA Why? Above, denotes the -th block of a string, a Adv ind cpa ECB (A) = Pr Exp ind cpa 1 ECB (A) = 1 Pr Exp ind cpa 0 ECB (A) = 1 = 1 0 =

7 Analysis of the CTRC Let F:{0,1} k!{0,1} l!{0,1} L be a function family. CBC=({0,1} k,e,d): is initially 0 l A current counter is maintained as a state m C2 M2 Mm The scheme is used to encrypt at most 2 l blocks (so that the counter does not wrap around) Security of CTRC Theorem. For any adversary A there exists an adversary B such that Adv ind cpa where Proof idea. We present an adversary B who needs to distinguish whether it is given an oracle access to a truly random function or an instance of F. B will use A s ability to break the CTRC encryption scheme. B will run A as a subroutine, simulating the ind-cpa experiment for it. B will answer A s oracle queries using its own oracle. Finally, if A wins, B will win. CT RC f (A) 2 Advpr (B) F t B = t A + O(q A + (l + L) µ A l ),q B = µ A l,µ B = µ A How good is the scheme? The flaws seem hard to find. Q. But may be they exist and we just don t see them? A. The mode is as good as it can be and we can prove it Proof. Let A be any ind-cpa adversary attacking CTRC. We present a prf adversary B: b R {0,1} M 0,M 1 M b A E (!) g/ b B g / B can simulate the CTRC encryption algorithm because it makes only oracle use of the underlying function F. 1 iff b =b Adversary B g b {0, 1} Run adversary A, replying to its oracle queries as follows When A makes an oracle query (M 0, M 1 ) do C E g (M b ) Return C to A as the answer Until A stops and outputs a bit b If b = b then return 1 else return 0 g is a random instance of Func(l,L) Let us analyze B. Note that Pr Exp prf-1 F (B) = 1 = Pr Exp ind-cpa-cg F (A) = 1 Pr Exp prf-0 F (B) = 1 = Pr Exp ind-cpa-cg Func(l,L) (A) = 1 Equations (4.4) and (4.5) we can now apply Proposition 4. and thus Adv prf F (B) = Pr Exp prf-1 F (B) = 1 Pr Exp prf-0 F (B) = 1 We will show that = 1 2 Advind-cpa F (A) 1 2 Advind-cpa Func(l,L) (A) 1 Adv ind-cpa Func(l,L) (A) = 0 = Advind-cpa F (A) = Advind-cpa Func(l,L) (A) and the statement of the theorem follows.finally the resources of B are justified by the algorithm for B

8 Adv ind-cpa Func(l,L) (A) = 0 because all the values corresponding to the red dots on the picture below are random and independent (since they are the results of a random function applied to distinct points) and thus,..., are also random values, independent from the adversary A s challenge bit. Analysis of the CTR Let F:{0,1} k!{0,1} l!{0,1} L be a function family. CBC=({0,1} k,e,d): R"{0,1} l R+1 R+2 R+m m F K M2 Mm g g g R C2 M2 Mm C Theorem. For any adversary A there exists an adversary B such that Adv ind cpa CT R where What does the security statement tell us? Let F be AES, l=l=128. Assume one encrypts q=2 30 messages, 1 Kb each (2 13 bits), recall Adv ind cpa CT R (A) 2 q2 AES µ2 A L 2 2 l = 3 µ2 L (A) 2 Adv pr f Security of CTR F (B) + µ2 A l 2 2 l t B = t A + O(q A + (l + L) µ A l ),q B = µ A l,µ B = µ A = Adv pr f AES (A) q2 AES Proof idea. As in the proof of the previous theorem. Proof. The adversary B is exactly like one in the proof of the previous theorem. But now we claim that Adv ind cpa Given this and the previous proof, the statement of the theorem follows. To prove the claim note that after q queries A made the inputs to the random function are r 1 + 1, r 1 + 2,, r 1 + m 1 r 2 + 1, r 2 + 2,, r 2 + m 2. r q + 1, r q + 2,, r q + m q Adv ind cpa CT RFunc(l,L) (A) = Pr 1 A = 1 Pr 0 A = 1 = Pr 1 A = 1 Col Pr 1 Col + Pr 1 A = 1 NoCol Pr 1 NoCol Pr 0 A = 1 Col Pr 0 Col Pr 0 A = 1 NoCol Pr 0 NoCol = (Pr 1 A = 1 Col Pr 0 A = 1 Col) Pr 0 Col Pr 0 Col.. µ2 A CT RFunc(l,L) (A) 2 l 2 2 l Let NoCol be the event that these values are all distinct, and Col is the complement of NoCol. Then 31 32

9 It remains to calculate Pr Col Pr Col = Pr Col q (we drop the subscript 0 in the notation) (Col i is the event that there is is collision in the first i rows) = Pr Col q 1 + Pr Col q NoCol q 1 Pr NoCol q 1 Pr Col q 1 + Pr Col q NoCol q 1 Security of CBCC Let E:{0,1} k!{0,1} n!{0,1} n be a block cipher. CBCC=({0,1} k,e,d): Stateful. q Pr Col 1 + Pr Col i NoCol i 1 i=2 q = Pr Col i NoCol i 1. i=2 Pr Col i NoCol i 1 (m i + m 1 1) + (m i + m 2 1) + + (m i + m i 1 1) 2 l Pr Col = (i 1)m i + m i m 1 (i 1) 2 l, q Pr Col i NoCol i 1 i=2 q (i 1)m i + m i m 1 2 i=2 l = (q 1)(m1 + + mq) 2 l. The statement follows after we note that m m q = µ A /l "0 n incremented for each new message M2 C2 Mm Theorem. There exists an adversary A such that Proof idea. Adversary A EK(LR(,,b)) M 0,1 0 n ; M 1,1 0 n M 0,2 0 n ; M 1,2 0 n 1 1 IV 1, C 1 (LR(M 0,1, M 1,1, b)) IV 2, C 2 (LR(M 0,2, M 1,2, b)) If C 1 = C 2 then return 1 else return 0 Adv ind cpa CBCC (A) = 1 33 We claim that 34 Security of CBC Did we get all we wanted? Let E:{0,1} k!{0,1} n!{0,1} n be a block cipher. CBC=({0,1} k,e,d): Is IND-CPA security definition strong enough (does it take into account all the bad things that can happen?) IV"{0,1} n IV M2 Mm An adversary wants to win: to get some partial information about the plaintext from a challenge ciphertext IV C2 What if the adversary can make the receiver to decrypt other ciphertexts of the adversary s choice, learn the plaintexts and this helps it to win? Theorem. For any adversary A there exists an adversary B such that Our definition didn t consider such chosen-ciphertext attacks Adv ind cpa CBC (A) 2 Adv pr f E (B) + µ2 A n 2 2 n where t B = t A + O(q A + µ A ), q B = µ A n, µ B = µ A 35 36

10 Indistinguishability under chosen-ciphertext attacks Fix =(KeySp,E,D) K"KeySp For an adversary A and a bit b consider an experiment b d A M 0,M 1 C M LR(!,!,!) C=(Mb ) D K () The experiment returns d The IND-CCA advantage of A is: Adv ind cca M b () (LR(!,!,!)) Exp ind cca b (A) A is not allowed to query its decryption oracle on ciphertexts returned by its LR encryption oracle (A) = Pr Exp ind cca 1 (A) = 1 Pr Exp ind cca 0 (A) = 1 A symmetric encryption scheme is indistinguishable under chosenciphertext attacks (IND-CCA secure) if for any adversary A with reasonable resources Adv ind cca (A) is small (close to 0). 37