Inverse problems and sparse models (1/2) Rémi Gribonval INRIA Rennes - Bretagne Atlantique, France
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1 Inverse problems and sparse models (1/2) Rémi Gribonval INRIA Rennes - Bretagne Atlantique, France remi.gribonval@inria.fr
2 Structure of the tutorial Session 1: Introduction to inverse problems & sparse models Sparse recovery: Well-posedness Complexity Pursuits Optimization principles Greedy algorithms Session 2: Recovery guarantees Coherence Restricted Isometry Property Null Space Properties 2
3 Further material on sparsity Books Signal Processing perspective S. Mallat, «Wavelet Tour of Signal Processing», 3rd edition, 2008 M. Elad, «Sparse and Redundant Representations: From Theory to Applications in Signal and Image Processing», Mathematical perspective S. Foucart, H. Rauhut, «A Mathematical Introduction to Compressed Sensing», Springer, in preparation. Review paper: Bruckstein, Donoho, Elad, SIAM Reviews,
4 Inverse problems -
5 Example: Inpainting Problem Unknown image with N pixels y 2 R N y Partially observed image: m < N observed pixels b[p] =y[p], p 2 Observed Measurement matrix b = My b y 5
6 Example : audio source separation «Softly as in a morning sunrise» 6
7 Example : audio source separation «Softly as in a morning sunrise» 6
8 Blind Source Separation Mixing model : linear instantaneous mixture y right (t) y left (t) s 1 (t) s 2 (t) s 3 (t) Source model : if disjoint time-supports y left (t) y right (t)... then clustering to : 1- identify (columns of) the mixing matrix 2- recover sources 7
9 Blind Source Separation Mixing model : linear instantaneous mixture y right (t) y left (t) s 1 (t) s 2 (t) s 3 (t) In practice... y left (t) y right (t) 8
10 Time-Frequency Masking Mixing model in the time-frequency domain Y right (, f) Y left (, f) S(, f) And miraculously... Y left (, f)... time-frequency representations of audio signals are (often) almost disjoint. Y right (, f) 9
11 Inverse problems & Sparsity -
12 Inverse problems Inverse problem : exploit indirect or incomplete obervation to recontruct some data z = My Observations Reconstruct Data Sparsity : represent / approximate high-dimensional & complex data using few parameters fewer equations than unknowns y x few nonzero components Data Reduce the dimension Representation 11
13 Inverse problems Signal space ~ R N Set of signals of interest Nonlinear Approximation = Sparse recovery Linear projection Courtesy: M. Davies, U. Edinburgh Observation space ~ R M M<<N 12
14 Sparsity: definition A vector is sparse if it has (many) zero coefficients k-sparse if it has k nonzero coefficients 13
15 Sparsity: definition Not sparse A vector is sparse if it has (many) zero coefficients k-sparse if it has k nonzero coefficients Symbolic representation as column vector 13
16 Sparsity: definition Not sparse A vector is sparse if it has (many) zero coefficients k-sparse if it has k nonzero coefficients Symbolic representation as column vector 3-sparse 13
17 Sparsity: definition Not sparse A vector is sparse if it has (many) zero coefficients k-sparse if it has k nonzero coefficients Symbolic representation as column vector Support = indices of nonzero components 3-sparse 13
18 Sparsity: definition Not sparse A vector is sparse if it has (many) zero coefficients k-sparse if it has k nonzero coefficients Symbolic representation as column vector Support = indices of nonzero components Sparsity measured with L0 pseudo-norm x 0 := {n, x n =0} = n x n 0 3-sparse 13
19 Sparsity: definition Not sparse A vector is sparse if it has (many) zero coefficients k-sparse if it has k nonzero coefficients Symbolic representation as column vector Support = indices of nonzero components Sparsity measured with L0 pseudo-norm x 0 := {n, x n =0} = x n 0 n In french: sparse -> «creux», «parcimonieux» sparsity, sparseness -> «parcimonie», «sparsité» 3-sparse 13
20 Sparsity and subset selection Under-determined system Infinitely many solutions If vector is sparse: b ~ A x 14
21 Sparsity and subset selection Under-determined system b ~ A Infinitely many solutions If vector is sparse: If support is known (and columns independent) x 14
22 Sparsity and subset selection Under-determined system Infinitely many solutions If vector is sparse: If support is known (and columns independent) b ~ nonzero values characterized by (over)determined linear problem A x b ~ 14
23 Sparsity and subset selection Under-determined system Infinitely many solutions If vector is sparse: If support is known (and columns independent) nonzero values characterized by (over)determined linear problem If support is unknown Main issue = finding the support! This is the subset selection problem b ~ b ~ A x 14
24 Sparsity and subset selection Under-determined system Infinitely many solutions If vector is sparse: If support is known (and columns independent) nonzero values characterized by (over)determined linear problem If support is unknown Main issue = finding the support! This is the subset selection problem Objectives of the tutorial b ~ b ~ Well-posedness of subset selection Efficient subset selection algorithms = pursuit algorithms Stability guarantees of pursuits A x 14
25 Inverse Problems & Sparsity: Mathematical foundations Bottleneck : Ill-posedness when fewer equations than unknowns Novelty : Well-posedness = uniqueness of sparse solution: x 0, x 1 Ax 0 = Ax 1 x 0 = x 1 if are sufficiently sparse, then Ax 0 = Ax 1 x 0 = x 1 Recovery of with practical pursuit algorithms x 0 Thresholding, Matching Pursuits, Minimisation of Lp norms p<=1,... 15
26 Sparse models & data compression -
27 Relevance of the sparsity assumption Audio : time-frequency representations (MP3) ANALYSIS SYNTHESIS Black = zero Images : wavelet transform (JPEG2000) ANALYSIS SYNTHESIS Gray = zero 17
28 Mathematical expression of the sparsity assumption Signal / image = high dimensional vector Definition: Atoms: basis vectors ex: time-frequency atoms, wavelets Dictionary: collection of atoms y 2 R N ' k 2 R N {' k } 1applekappleK =[' k ] 1applekappleK matrix which columns are the atoms Sparse signal model = combination of few atoms y X k x k ' k = x 18
29 Sparsity & compression Full vector Sparse vector y N x Key practical issues: choose dictionary 19
30 Sparsity & compression Full vector Sparse vector N entries = N floats N y x Key practical issues: choose dictionary 19
31 Sparsity & compression Full vector Sparse vector N entries = N floats N y x k N nonzero entries = k floats Key practical issues: choose dictionary 19
32 Sparsity & compression Full vector Sparse vector N entries = N floats N y x k N nonzero entries = k floats + k positions among N = bits log 2 N k k log 2 N k Key practical issues: choose dictionary 19
33 Sparse recovery: well-posedness -
34 Example: Inpainting Problem Unknown image with N pixels y 2 R N y Sparse Model in wavelet domain wavelets coefficients are sparse x T y sparse representation of unknown image Measurement matrix y x b = My b M x A := M 21
35 Signal Processing Vocabulary x Unknown representation, sources,... Forward linear model b Ax Known linear system: A dictionary, mixing matrix, sensing system... Decomposition Reconstruction Separation Observed data: b signal, image, mixture of sources,... 22
36 (My Basic Understanding of) Machine Learning Vocabulary w Regression Unknown xcoeffs representation, sources,... Forward linear model b Ax y = Xw Known Design linear matrix system: A dictionary, mixing matrix, sensing system... X X y Observation Observed data: b signal, image, mixture of sources,... Decomposition Reconstruction Separation 23
37 (My Basic Understanding of) Statistics Vocabulary Regression Unknown xcoeffs representation, sources,... Forward linear model b Ax y = X Known Design linear matrix system: A dictionary, mixing matrix, sensing system... X X y Observation Observed data: b signal, image, mixture of sources,... Decomposition Reconstruction Separation 24
38 Well-posedness? What property should A satisfy such that, for any pair of k-sparse vectors x 0, x 1 Ax 0 = Ax 1 x 0 = x 1 25
39 Well-posedness = identifiability of k-sparse vectors Theorem: if every 2k columns of A are linearly independent, then for every k-sparse vectors Ax 0 = Ax 1 x 0 = x 1 x 0,x 1 26
40 Well-posedness = identifiability of k-sparse vectors Theorem: if every 2k columns of A are linearly independent, then for every k-sparse vectors Proof: define the vector Its support Ax 0 = Ax 1 x 0 = x 1 z = x 0 x 1 I := {i : z i =0} is of size at most 2k x 0,x 1 I = kzk 0 applekx 0 k 0 + kx 1 k 0 apple 2k P It is in the null space of A hence i2i z ia i = Az =0 The columns indexed by I are linearly independent hence z =0 26
41 Notions of spark / Kruskal rank Definition: spark(a) size of minimal set of linearly dependent columns Definition: Kruskal rank K-rank(A): maximal L such that every L columns linearly indep. Property K-rank(A) = spark(a) Well-posedness for k-sparse vectors iff 2k apple K-rank(A) 1 apple rank(a)... but the computation of K-rank for an arbitrary A is NP-complete 27
42 Examples / Exercices Definition: Kruskal rank K-rank(A): maximal L such that every L columns linearly indep. Small spark / Kruskal-rank if A contains two copies of the same column Largest spark: m x N «Vandermonde» matrix with 0 Random Gaussian matrix: N.... with probability one:. m 1... m N 1 C A K-rank(A) =?? i 6= m<n K-rank(A) =?? j, 8i 6= j A =(a ij ) a ij N (0, 1) K-rank(A) =?? 28
43 Sparse recovery: complexity -
44 Sparse recovery? Assuming well-posedness, how to compute the unique k-sparse solution to b = Ax 30
45 Ideal sparse approximation Input: m x N matrix A, with m < N, m-dimensional vector b Objective: find a sparsest approximation within given tolerance arg min x x 0, s.t. b Ax 31
46 Success of Ideal Sparse Approximation Theorem: if then 2k apple K-rank(A) Well-posedness for every pair of k-sparse vectors x 0,x 1 Ax 0 = Ax 1 x 0 = x 1 Recovery by L0 minimization for every k-sparse vector x 0 we have x 0 = arg min x kxk 0 s.t. Ax = Ax 0 32
47 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
48 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
49 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
50 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
51 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
52 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
53 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
54 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search min x kb Axk 2 s.t. support(x) =I Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
55 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search min x kb Axk 2 s.t. support(x) =I Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
56 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search min x kb Axk 2 s.t. support(x) =I Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
57 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search min x kb Axk 2 s.t. support(x) =I Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
58 Complexity of Ideal Sparse Approximation Naive: Brute force search min x kb Axk 2 s.t. support(x) =I Many k-tuples to try! Theorem (Davies et al, Natarajan) Solving the L0 optimization problem is NP-complete Are there other more efficient alternatives? 33
59 Efficient Sparse Approximation With Time-Frequency Atoms Audio = superimposition of structures Example : glockenspiel b 2 R transients = short, small scale harmonic part = long, large scale Two-layer sparse model with Gabor atoms s,,f (t) = p 1 t w s s 2i ft e s,,f b 1 x x 2 34
60 Efficient Sparse Approximation With Time-Frequency Atoms Audio = superimposition of structures Example : glockenspiel 1x 1 b 2 R transients = short, small scale harmonic part = long, large scale Two-layer sparse model with Gabor atoms s,,f (t) = p 1 t w s s 2i ft e s,,f b 1 x x 2 34
61 Efficient Sparse Approximation With Time-Frequency Atoms Audio = superimposition of structures Example : glockenspiel 1x 1 b 2 R transients = short, small scale harmonic part = long, large scale Two-layer sparse model with Gabor atoms s,,f (t) = p 1 t w s s 2i ft e s,,f b 1 x x 2 2x 2 34
62 Towards Pursuit Algorithms Optimization principles -
63 Overall compromise Approximation quality Ax b 2 Ideal sparsity measure : norm 0 x 0 := {n, x n =0} = x n 0 Relaxed sparsity measures 0 <p<, x p := n n x n p 1/p 36
64 Norms when Lp norms / quasi-norms 1 p< x p =0 x =0 x p = x p,,x = convex Triangle inequality x + y p x p + y p, x, y Quasi-norms when Quasi-triangle inequality x + y p x + y p p Pseudo -norm for p=0 x + y 0 0 <p<1 2 1/p x p + y p, x, y x p p + y p p, x, y x 0 + y 0, x, y = nonconvex 37
65 Optimization problems Approximation min x b Ax 2 s.t. x p Sparsification min x x p s.t. b Ax 2 Regularization 1 min x 2 b Ax + x 2 p 38
66 Lp norms level sets Strictly convex when p>1 Convex p=1 Nonconvex p<1 Observation: the minimizer is sparse {x s.t.b = Ax} when p<=1 39
67 Global Optimization : from Principles to Algorithms Optimization principle NP-hard combinatorial Sparse representation Sparse approximation FOCUSS / IRLS 1 min x 2 Ax b x p p 0 > 0 Ax = b Ax b Iterative thresholding / proximal algo. Linear local minima convex : global minimum Lasso [Tibshirani 1996], Basis Pursuit (Denoising) [Chen, Donoho & Saunders, 1999] Linear/Quadratic programming (interior point, etc.) Homotopy method [Osborne 2000] / Least Angle Regression [Efron &al 2002] Iterative / proximal algorithms [Daubechies, de Frise, de Mol 2004, Combettes & Pesquet 2008, Beck & Teboulle ] 40
68 Greedy Pursuit Algorithms -
69 The orthonormal case: thresholding Observation: when A is orthonormal, the problem is equivalent to X min (a T n b x n ) 2 s.t. kxk 0 apple k x Let k min b Ax 2 2 s.t. x 0 k x n index the k largest inner products min a T n b max a T n b n2 k n/2 k an optimum solution is x n = a T n b,n2 k ; x n =0,n /2 k 42
70 Matching Pursuit (MP) Iterative algorithm (aka Projection Pursuit, CLEAN) Initialization Atom selection: r 0 = b i =1 n i = arg max n at n r i 1 Residual update r i = r i 1 (a T n i r i 1 )a ni Sparse approximation after k steps b = kx i=1 a T n r i i 1 a + r ni k 43
71 b V k = span(a ni, 1 apple i apple k) 44
72 Orthonormal MP (OMP) [Mallat & Zhang 93, Pati & al 94] Observation: after k iterations Approximant belongs to V k = span(a ni, 1 apple i apple k) Best approximation from = V k P Vk b = A k A + k b k = {n i, 1 i k} r k = b kx i=1 orthoprojection k a ni OMP residual update rule r k = b P Vk b 45
73 OMP Same as MP, except residual update rule Atom selection: n i = arg max n at n r i 1 Index update Residual update i = i 1 {n i } V i = span(a n,n2 i ) r i = b P Vi b 46
74 Stagewise greedy algorithms Principle select multiple atoms at a time to accelerate the process possibly prune out some atoms at each stage Example of such algorithms Morphological Component Analysis [MCA, Bobin et al] Stagewise OMP [Donoho & al] CoSAMP [Needell & Tropp] ROMP [Needell & Vershynin] Iterative Hard Thresholding [Blumensath & Davies 2008] 47
75 Overview of greedy algorithms b = Ax i + r i A =[A 1,...A N ] Matching Pursuit OMP Stagewise OMP Selection i := arg max n AT n r i 1 i := {n A T n r i 1 > i } Update i = i 1 i x i = x i 1 + A + i r i 1 r i = r i 1 A i A + i r i 1 i = i 1 i x i = A + b i r i = b A i x i MP & OMP: Mallat & Zhang 1993 StOMP: Donoho & al 2006 (similar to MCA, Bobin & al 2006) 48
76 Summary Global optimization Iterative greedy algorithms Principle 1 min x 2 Ax b x p p iterative decomposition select new components update residual r i = b Ax i Tuning quality/sparsity regularization parameter stopping criterion (nb of iterations, error level,...) x i 0 k r i Variants choice of sparsity measure p optimization algorithm initialization selection criterion (weak, stagewise...) update strategy (orthogonal...) 49
77 Sparse recovery: Provably good algorithms? -
78 Inverse problems Signal space ~ R N Set of signals of interest Nonlinear Approximation = Sparse recovery Linear projection Courtesy: M. Davies, U. Edinburgh Observation space ~ R M M<<N 51
79 Recovery analysis for inverse problem b = Ax Recoverable set for a given inversion algorithm {x = Algo1(Ax)} 52
80 Recovery analysis for inverse problem b = Ax Recoverable set for a given inversion algorithm Level sets of L0-norm 1-sparse x 0 1 {x = Algo1(Ax)} 52
81 Recovery analysis for inverse problem b = Ax Recoverable set for a given inversion algorithm Level sets of L0-norm 1-sparse 2-sparse x 0 x 0 1 k {x = Algo1(Ax)} 52
82 Recovery analysis for inverse problem b = Ax Recoverable set for a given inversion algorithm Level sets of L0-norm 1-sparse 2-sparse 3-sparse... x 0 x 0 1 k {x = Algo1(Ax)} 52
83 Recovery analysis for inverse problem b = Ax Recoverable set for a given inversion algorithm Level sets of L0-norm 1-sparse 2-sparse 3-sparse... x 0 x 0 1 k 53
84 Recovery analysis for inverse problem b = Ax Recoverable set for a given inversion algorithm Level sets of L0-norm 1-sparse 2-sparse 3-sparse... {x = Algo2(Ax)} x 0 x 0 1 k 53
85 Recovery analysis for inverse problem b = Ax Recoverable set for a given inversion algorithm Level sets of L0-norm 1-sparse 2-sparse 3-sparse... {x = Algo2(Ax)} x 0 x 0 1 k 53
86 Equivalence between L0, L1, OMP Theorem : assume that b = Ax 0 if x 0 0 k 0 (A) then x 0 = x 0 if x 0 0 k 1 (A) then x 0 = x 1 where x p = arg min Ax=Ax 0 x p Donoho & Huo 01 : pair of bases, coherence Donoho & Elad, Gribonval & Nielsen 2003 : dictionary, coherence Tropp 2004 : Orthonormal Matching Pursuit, cumulative coherence Candes, Romberg, Tao 2004 : random dictionaries, restricted isometry constants 54
87 Robust / stable sparse recovery? -
88 Stable identifiability Identifiability of 1-sparse vectors, with A 2x3 matrix Robust Not robust Not identifiable Beyond well-posedness: need good conditioning 56
89 Quantitative well-posedness: Coherence Coherence of A =[a 1...a N ] µ(a) := max i6=j a i a i 2, a j a j 2 µ 1 µ. 1 µ =1 Incoherent Coherent Perfectly coherent Small coherence implies large Kruskal rank 57
Inverse problems and sparse models (6/6) Rémi Gribonval INRIA Rennes - Bretagne Atlantique, France.
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