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1 ..,

2 (075.8) : /.. ;. : -, ISBN ,,, -, -, -,,., «- -» , (075.8) ISBN , , 2011.,

3 «-»..,, -,,, -, -,. -, :, -,, -. -,,,,, -, -., -...,..,..,..,..,..,.,,, - ( ),, [109, 112, 113] - [109] [109] [109] [109] - [109] - [113] [109] [109] [109] [109] [109] [109] [109] 3

4 - [113] + [109, 113] [109, 113] + [109] [109] [109] [109] [109] [109] [109] [109] () [109] [109] [109] ASTM, D4373 [112] +, +, +, [112] +, +, +, **1) [112] **2) [112] +* +, +, **1) [112] +, * +, +, **1) [112] +, (II) +, (II) +, (II) [112] +, +, +, ** - [112] +, (II) +, (II) +, (II) [112] [112] + + [112] + [112] [112] [112] +, (I) +, (I) +, (I) +, (I) +, (I) +, (I) C C **1) +, (I) +, (I) +, (I) C C. «+» ; ; - ; ; «+,» ; (I), (II) ; * - ; ** : 1),.,., 1973; 2) «-».,., 1997., ««, -, -, -,. 4

5 , -,,, -, -.,,,,. -, :,.,, -, ,,,., (..,..,..,.... ), «-» (1971): «,,,». -, : «(-),,. -,,». «-,,, -»..., «,,... -, () (- ).,..,, -,». - (soil) (rock) -,,,,. 5

6 , «-, -. -, ( ).,, 3 :, ()»., -...,,, -,, [50]., : «,,, -,, -.,,» [34]. 6

7 1. [50]: , , , -. XIX. -,, ,..,..,..,... -, XIX XX. «-» «-». -. :.A. Coulomb (, ), T. Telford (,, ), C. Berigny ( ), A. Collin (, ), Sir B. Baker W.J., M. Rankine, H.D. Krey, A.L. Bell ( ), J. Boussinesq (- ), O. Reynolds ( ), A.M. Atterberg (, ) ,.., ,..,..,..,..,....., -.,, - -,, , , 1930., 1932., , , ; -,, -, - ; -, -,, -. :.. (1936),.. «7

8 » (1943),.. «-» (1937),.. «-» (1941).. -,.., «-». -..,..,..,..,... - :..,..,..,.. -,..,.. ; :..,.. -,..,..,..,..,.. - ; :..,.. ; :.. -,..,..,.. ; :.. -,..,.....,..,.. ; -..,..,.. ; -..,... -,.. -,..,..,,. -..,..,. :.. (1952) «-» (1939);.. (1949, );.. «.» ( );..,..,..,..,.. «-» (1971, );.. «-» (1952, 1970, );.. (1958, 1962, ); «- -».. - (1984). - -, , -,, -, -. -, - :.. (1997),.. «(2002),.. (2002) , «-», ; «-»,..,.... ; «-»,.... ;,..,.... ; «-»,

9 - -, - - ( - ),,,, -, -. -,...,, - - : 1) ( ); 2) - ; 3) - (. 1.1) , -: 1 ; 2 - ; ,, (- ) (- ) , -., :, - ; ; - ; , - -, :,.,,, -, -. 9

10 ,..,., - ;,.,. - :,, -,, - ; ;, -, ( -,, - );,, ; - ; : - ; ; - [50]. 10

11 2., -, -,, -. (. 2.1): - (, ), - ( ), ( ) (-, ) [50].., ( ), -, - -.,.,, -..,, , ,.,, -, -. -., , , - ; (,, ), ; (,,.), -., -,

12 ,,,, -,, - (,, ).. - -, -,. :,, -,. ( ), -, ( ). - ( ). - (), -., -. (). -, ( ), - (,,, N., ). - :..,. (, -, ). -,.. -.,.,. -,, -, -., - -,. -,,. : X V (, ), -, - 12

13 X (,,, N, S.), V (, N,, S.), ,,. ( --), -., (,,.),. -.,, : ; ; ; ; - ;, - [50] (. sile ) -. -, 75 % ( 87 %) 95 % :,,,,,. -, 12 %., (, ). (,,.) (, ) (,, ). - () - (,, ). (,,,,, - ),,,,,,., - (,,,,.). ; Si (0,39 ) (1,32 ).., [SiO 4 ] 3,. - () -. -,, - 13

14 ,., [Si 4 ] 4,, , [50]. - :,,, (. 2.2). [Si 4 ] 4 - : -. - (. 2.2, ) 2, 1, F 1. [Si 4 ] 4, -. -,., - [Si 2 O 7 ] 6, (. 2.2, ),.,,,. ( );,,. ( - F, 2, ); -,., -,. [87]., -, -. -,, - (. 2.2,, ). - : [Si 3 9 ] 6, [Si 4 12 ] 8,, [Si 6 18 ] 12 - [Si 8 24 ] : ; ;, ( );, ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ) [87] 14 [Si 8 20 ] 12 [Si ] , [Si 3 ] 2 (. 2.2,, ) - [Si 4 11 ] 6 (. 2.2, ). -,.

15 . (), (). (-,, ) (,, ). -,, -. ; %.,,,.. -,,, ,5; 2,8 3,6 / 3. - ( ) -, 10 % ( ). - (. 2.2, ),. - :,, -,, (,, ), (, ), (, ),. :,,,,,. (, ) :, ;. -. (. 2.2, ).,, [SiO 2 ] 0.,,., -. -, (, ). 1:3 1:1. -, (), (- ), (), (),,. [87]., -. ( ), ; ( ), - ; ( ) ( ),. - - : (2,20 / 3 ), (2,26 2,27 / 3 ) - (2,52 2,65 / 3 ) [50]. 15

16 , - -,, ; - ( 1 ), - - [50].,, (. 2.3), %. - -, ,,,,,, -,.,,,. : (Si 4 ) 4 (. 2.4),,, (. 2.5). (. 2.4), 4, -,, -..,,, - (. 2.4).,,, 6. -, (), (. 2.5)., - 2,.., -.,., 2/3,. -.,, - (1 3+, F 3+ ), - 16

17 F 2+, g +, u 2+, Zn 2+. :, ;, 2/3 -, Al 3+ ;,, Mg 2+ (. 2.6). -,,, (, ). -, ().,.,, : ; ;, ; : ; ; ; 17

18 ,. Si 4+ l 3+ ( 1 3+, F 3+, F 2+, g +, Zn 2+.) -, ( ) ,, -,. - 1:1; - 2:1..,,,

19 [50] -, -, %, / 3, /100 1: , -,,,, - Al 4 [Si 4 O 10 ](OH) 8 Al 4 [Si 4 O 10 ](OH) 8 4H 2 O 2,60 2, Mg 6 [Si 4 O 10 ](OH) 8 2, : ,, -.,, M * 0,66(Al 3,34 Mg 0,66 )[Si 8 O 20 ](OH) 4 nh 2 O M 0,66 (Al 4 )[Si 7,34 Al 0,66 O 20 ](OH) 4 nh 2 O, n = M 0,66 Fe 3+ 4[Si 7,34 Al 0,66 O 20 ](OH) 4 nh 2 O M 0,32 Mg 5,84 [Si 8 O 20 ](OH) 4 nh 2 O M 0,66 Mg 6 [Si 7,34 Al 0,66 O 20 ](OH) 4 nh 2 O, n = M 0,66 Ni 6,0 [Si 7,34 Al 0,66 O 20 ](OH) 4 nh 2 O >90 >90 2,06...2,20 2,12...2,26 2,20...2,38 2,02...2,12 2,26...2,36 2,28...2,40 >95 >80 >50 2,25...2, >50 2,40...2, Al- () (),, K 1,6 1,8 (Al >3,2 Fe 2+ <0,8)[Si 8 x Al x O 20 ](OH 2 F) 4 nh 2 O K 1,4 1,8 (Al 3 Fe 3+ 1)[Si 8 x Al x O 20 ](OH) 4 nh 2 O K 1,4 1,8 (Al 2,2 Fe 3+ >2)[Si 8 x (Al,Fe) x O 20 ](OH) 4 nh 2 O K 1,6 1,8 (Mg 2 Fe 2+ 2Al 1 Fe 3+ 0,4)[Si 5,7 Al 2,3 O 20 ](OH 2 F) 4 nh 2 O ,75 2,84 < ,66 2, , > ,8 2, ,97...3,

20 2.1,, %, / 3, /100 2: Al 0,6 (Al,Fe 3+ ) 4 )[Si 8-x Al x O 20 ](OH) 4 10H 2 O (Mg,Ca) 0,6 1,0 (Mg,Fe 2+ ) 6 [Si 8 x Al x O 20 ]() <10 2,50...2, ,45...2, :1: Mg-Fe- Al 8+0,66x [Si 8 x Al x O 20 ](OH) 16 2,60...2, Al 1,2 Mg 10 Fe 0,6 [Si 8 x Al x O 20 ](OH) 16 Al 1,8 Mg 4,2 Fe 5,4 [Si 8 x Al x O 20 ](OH) 16 Al 2,6 Fe 3+ 0,3 Fe 2+ 7,6 Mg 1,4 [Si 8 x Al x O 20 ](OH) 16 2,55...2,67 2,70...2,90 3,10...3, Al 5,4 Mg 4,6 [Si 6,6 Al 1,4 O 20 ](OH) 16 2,65...2, :1 2:1 2:1: , -. -, -. K x M y (R 3+ 4 yr 2+ y) [Si 8 x Al x O 20 ](OH) 4 nh 2 O M x y (R 2+ 9 yr 3+ y) [Si 8 x Al x O 20 ](OH) 10 nh 2 O 50 2,50...2, ,50...2, :1 - (Mg,Al) 3 (H 2 O) 2 (OH)[Si 4 O 10 ] 2H 2 O 2,

21 ,, : -,, ,,,, (. «-» - ) :1. - 0,72 ( 7,2 ). -, (. 2.8). -,,, Si - 1, ,1 10, - 0,1...0,5.. -,, - (. 2.9, ). -, [50] , 1,, Al. 75 % -, 25 % - 21

22 : ; -, -, (. 2.10) ,,, - -,. 10,1 7,2. 50 C 50 %,., -.,,,. 1:1, - (g 2+, F 2+ ),,, l 3+,. -,. - ( -), 50,. 22

23 -. - -,,., -. -,, -, -. -, - [108]. (. ), 2:1, - (. 2.11). - 2,,.,. : - (. 2.1) , 2:1,, - : 1 3+ g 2+ (F 2+ ) ; (,,.) (, ). -. (. 2.9,. 2.11),,,. -, -, 23

24 [75]. - -, -., /,, /. -, , (. 2.11)., -,. -,, -., -,., - [108]. - 2:1., -. -,, -,., -,, -.,,. -., 10 % ;, %, %,. -, -,,. -,,,. (. 2.12),. -, -.., ,

25 [108] (. 2.13) 2:1, (),.,,. -,. -., ( 2+ g 2+ ). -,,.,,, -, -. -, ( /), -, -., -, /.,.. - [108]

26 (. 2.1,. 2.14). 2:1, g 2+, 2+ F 2+. 2:2, - 2:1:1, ( ).,, -, (, ), -. -, Cr, Ni, Mn, V, u Li.,,, -. -,,,, 2:1 - Si (F 3+ ),., -. (. 2.14)., ,. -,,, - - [108]., ()

27 , -, (, ) -, ( -...)., 2:1, -...,..., , - -, -.,,, -. -,, -, [108].,,,,, -,, -. - () -, ( - ) - 2:1..,,,.,, 2:1,, -.. -,. 0,37 1,2,, -,.,., - ;,, < /. 27

28 , /, - -., -, , [108]., : nsi 2 mal 2 3 2, Al 2 Si 3 (OH) 4.,, ,,,.. -,. Si 1. [108]. [50]. -., -..., -,, - (. 2.15, - ) [50] 28

29 2, 4 6, ( 1) () 1.,, -,,. - (. ;..), (-), ( - ), (,,,.), (, -.),,. 2-, -, () :,,,,, ; :.,, -,, - - ;. 6, - : () -, -,,,., (-,, ). - : , -,. -,... -, -, , -. -, - -, -. -, [50] (,,, ), (,,.), (,,,.),,.., -, -., 29

30 , - - ( ),,... ( ), Na1, 1.,. -, - 26 %,... -,, -,,. -.. : - [S 4 ] 2,. - [S 4 ] 2 2 [S 4 ], Sr[S 4 ], [S 4 ], Na[S 4 ]. -, , -.. -,,.., 2+, 2+, 2+, F 2+, b 2+., (). - :, [ 3 ] ,g( 3 ) 2, g 3, b 3, F 3,.., :,.,,, - -,..,,, -.,,,.,,.,.., -, - 30

31 . - - ()..,, - [50] , -,,, F, u, Zn, b, Sb, g, u, i,, Ni , 20.,,,,,,,.,., -,. - - (,, ). - (,, ).,, ( 8,5 / 3 )., -,.,,.,,, -,., (,.),, -, -,, - (,.) [50] , [34] : ; ;. -. -,,,. -, 31

32 ( ), -. - ( ), -. -, -,, -,. -,,,.,,, -, -. : R c (. 2.2); () d (. 2.2, ); n (. 2.2); wr (. 2.2); K sof (. 2.2); q sr (. 7.2); k (. 2.2, ); (,. 2.23). 2.2 [34] 1. R c, R c > R c > R c > R c 5 5 > R c 3 3 > R c 1 R c < 1 2. ( ) d, / 3 d 2,50 2,50 > d 2,10 2,10 > d 1,20 d < 1,20 3. n,.. n 3 3 < n < n 30 n > wr,.. 0,9 K wr < 1 0,8 K wr < 0,9 K wr < 0,80 5. K sof,.. K sof 0,75 K sof < 0,75 32

33 6. k, / k 0,005 0,005 < k 0,3 0,3 < k 3,0 3,0 < k 30 k > , - -, -, - -, ,,,, -,,,.,, , -, -. :,. - -, -.., -. -,,, - -,, : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; %, -, %, ,, -,,, [128]. [34, 111]: 1., - -, - 15 %. (,,, ) -. - (,,,,, ),. 33

34 2.,, ( ) ( ). - ( ) (, -,..). 3.,, -,.,,, -.,,. ( ) :,,. (, -, ),.,,.,,., -, ( I), - :, - - (,, - ), (, ), (, ), ( - ), ( ). - -,,,,. - :,, - ; (), - ;,, ; -,, -, ; -, (,..),, -.. [111] , ( ) ( ) : 1) -, ; 2),, -,,. 34

35 ,. -,. -,. ( ). - 2 ( 50 % ), -. - (),, (). [34]: ( ); u (. 2.3); S r (. 2.3); k (. 2.2); d (. 2.2); wrt (. 2.3); fr (. 2.3); (. 2.23). 0,05 0,2, 3 %.,.. -,, -. [34]: ( ); u (. 2.3); d (. 2.2); I r (. 2.16); D sal (. 7.3); (. 2.3); I D (. 2.3); S r (. 2.3); k (. 2.2); (. 2.23)., -, 3 %. [34]: I p ( ); I p (. 2.3); I l (. 2.3); (. 2.3); d (. 2.2); I r (. 2.16); sw (. 2.3); sl (. 2.3); D sal (. 7.3); f (. 6.3); t (. 2.23). 35

36 [34] d,, % - ( ) >200 >50 ( ) >10 >50 ( ) >2 >50 >2 >25 >0,50 >50 >0,25 >50 >0,10 75 >0,10 < % - 30 % C u C u 3 C u > 3 3. S r,.. () 0 < S r 0,5 () 0,5 < S r 0,8 0,8 < S r 1 4. wrt,.. 0 < wrt 0,50 0,50 < wrt 0,75 0,75 < wrt 1,00 5. fr,.. fr 0,05 0,05 < fr 0,20 0,20 < fr 0,30 0,30 < fr 0,40 fr > 0,40 6.,.., 0,55 0,60 0,60 0,55 < 0,70 0,60 < 0,75 0,60 < 0,80 > 0,70 > 0,75 > 0,80 7. I D,.. 0 < I D 0,33 0,33 < I D 0,66 0,66 < I D 1,00 8. I p, % I p 1 I p < 7 7 I p < 17 I p 17 36

37 I p, % (2,0 0,5 ), % 1 I p < I p < 7 <50 7 I p < I p < 12 <40 12 I p < I p < 17 <40 17 I p < I p < 27 <40 I p I L I L < 0 0 I L 1,00 I L > 1,00 I L < 0 0 I L 0,25 0,25 < I L 0,50 0,50 < I L 0,75 0,75 < I L 1,00 I L > 1, > 2, %,, (), () 15 25,, (), () sw,.. sw < 0,04 0,04 sw 0,08 0,08 < sw 0,12 sw > 0, sl,.. sl < 0,01 0,01 sl 0,03 0,03 < sl 0,07 0,07 < sl 0,12 sl > 0,12 -, -, , ( ), (.. 5.3, ), - (. 6.2),, - ( ). 37

38 [34],, [111] ,,., -.,,,. : ( - ); R c ( ); K sof ; K wr K wrt (. 2.2, ); (,,..) (. 2.3)., (,,, -, ), - (. 2.3 [34])., -, - (. 2.3,. 1). -,, (, «--»). 2.4 [34] 1.,,, > ,1...2,0 () <0,1 2. K wr 1 1 1,0 0,9 1,0 0,95 0,91 0,8 0,96 0,85 <0,8 <0,85 3. ( 30 %) K wrt 0,5 0,33 0,5 0,75 0,33 0,67 >0,75 >0,67 38

39 ,, R c, >50 : ( 10 %), - ; (10 65 %),, ; ( 65 %),., : «20 % -». - ( >2 ), - : ( ); ( ); ( ). - (. 2.3,. 1) - (, «,»)., - ( - ), - ( ), : 0,10...0,01 ; 0,01...0,005 ; <0,005. <0,005,, (. 5,. 2.2). K wr,.. 4, % -. 3, K wrt ( ) -, - R c,, (. 4,. 2.4) K sof,

40 [111] K wrt, > ,1...2,0 <0,1 <0, ,9...4,1 0,25 0, ,7...3,0 0,51 0, ,6...6,4 >0, , , (. 5,. 2.2)., - (,,, ), -, [111].,, : ; - ; - ; > 0,6 S r < 0,7, :,, ; ; - ; ;.. -, , 0, %.,. -,,. : ; ; ; ; ;

41 (,, -.) ; ; ,, %,. -.. (1934.),, ;.. (1934.),,,,, - ;. (1933.), -,, -., - (). - (),.,,.,,,,. -,, -.,,. : K[AlSi 3 O 8 ] Na[AlSi 3 O 8 ] Ca[Al 2 Si 2 O 8 ]., -,, -.,, -., -, -.., -. -., -. : -,,, -, -,,,.,. -.,,,, -,,,,,,,,, -,,,,. 41

42 -. 5, 500., -.., -, -. - (.),.,,,,,. :,,.;,,.; ;.;,,. - (X) X = n 100 / N, n ; N..,.,, ( ) () -, 5 %, -. -., -,, ( ).., 40 %,. -. ( ) -. : ; ; ; 0,

43 . - : -, 1,, - ( 10 %, )., 0,05,, ( ). -., -.. -, ,05 -.,, -. [83] , % -,,,,,,,,. (. 2.6) ,001,,, ,,.. -., , , -. 43

44 2.6, [83] N p N g - N g N p - SiO 2 1,544 1,533 0,009 (100 n)na[alsi 3 O 7 ] 1, ,575 1, ,588 0, ,019 nca[al 2 Si 2 O 5 ] k [AlSi 3 O 6 ] 0,007 «k [AlSi 3 O 6 ] 0,007 CaCO 3 1,486 1,658 0,172 CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 «1,500 1,681 0,181 «FeCO 3 «1,633 1,875 0,242 «K 11 (Fe, Fe, Al, Mg) 2 3 1, ,612 1, ,644 0,02...0,032 [Si 3 (Si, Al)O]OH] nh 2 O (Mg, Fe) 6 p (Al, Fe) 2p 1,57...1,64 1, ,645 0, ,007 Si 4 p O 10 [OH] 3 FeS 2 - Fe 2 O 3 2,94...2,752 3,22...2,988 0,28...0,245 -, Fe 2 O 3 H 2 O 2, ,185 2, ,304 0, , Fe 3 O 4 CaSO 4 2H 2 O 1,520 1,529 0, KAl 2 [AlSi 3 O 10 ][OH] 2 1, ,572 1, ,615 0, , , K(Mg, Fe) 3 [Si 3 AlO 10 ] [OH, F] 2 1,56...1,60 1,60...1,66 0,04...0,06 «[96]. -., -, 1 2,.,,, 6 8.,,, ,,,,., -, -,. 44

45 [96] N p N g - N g N p Al 4 Si 4 O 10 OH 6 Al 2 O 3 2SiO 2 2H 2 O 1, ,563 1, ,570 0,006 (), K 2 Al 4 Si 6 Al 2 O 20 (OH) 4 1, ,63 1,57...1,67 0, ,055 Al 4 (Si 4 O 10 ) 2 [OH] 4 H 2 O 1, ,590 1, ,630 0, , (- - ) 1, ,63 1,57...1,66 0, ,030 10(Mg,Fe)O2Al 2 O 3 8H 2 O 1,57...1,64 1, ,545, - 0, ,007 ; - Mg 3 (Al,Si) 4 O 10 (OH) 2 Mg 0,050-1, ,36 1, ,583 0, ,030 4,5H 2 O, H 16 Mg 2 Al 2 Si 7 O 26 1, ,550 1, ,513 0, ,030-0,25...0,1; 0,1...0,05; 0,05...0, , ,542,,, - 1, , [76, 96]. - :,, , ,, -,,. 45

46 [96] <0,001, %: SiO 2 59,3...65,0 49,8...51,4 43,9...45,1 Al 2 O 3 17,0...24,8 21,0...22,6 37, ,3 CaO 0,74...2,14 0,28...1,53 0,28...0,56 MgO 3,53...5,41 3,07...4,24 0,15...0,42 Fe 2 O 3 (FeO) 2,26...3,39 (0,21...0,33) 4,90...8,15 (0,76...2,96) 1,05...2,11 K 2 O 0,15...1,54 5,71...6,28 0,16 Na 2 O 1,53...2,37 0,24...0,64 0,38 SiO 2 /R 2 O ph ,.. 0,16...0,12 0,08 0,04...0,03,.. 1,50...0,50 0,40...0,12 0,40...0,12,.. 0,43...0,40 0,15...0,05 0,12...0,05, : () 10 1 ; () 0, ; -, 2 3, ; () 1 1 ;.. 0,5...1,0,,,, -.,, 7.,..,,,., -., 34. 5, ; -..,, (,.). -. -,,,, ,.,..,,. -, ( ). 46

47 10- (. 2.9),,.., -, -, - -.., -, -.. -, -., [96] I II - - III IV - V VI - VII VIII - IX X -. 2,,. -. -,, -. 1, %-,. -, -. -,.. -.,.,,,,., -..,,.. :, + HCl.,., -, -, 47

48 3% , Fe 2 O ( %) 24, [50]. [83]. -,,, -., -, -.,. -.. : -55, , -60, -50, -50, -1 ( - ). - (,, - ),. - 0,5...1,0.. - : -,,.. -,,,., d,., (k = 90 2r )., (,, -..).,. - [96] , -,. -. -, : - 48

49 ; ;,, ; - ; ;,,, -.,,,,,,,,., -. -., :, -, - ; ; -, -, ; (- ), -. :,,,, - ( );,, ;, ( ).,,. r ( 0,1 ) : v = 2 ( 1 2 )g 2 / 9, 1 2 ; g ; μ. H r di 0,005531, ( 1) t d i (); H r (); s (/ 3 ); t (). -, (. 2.10) ,. : 0,1 ; 0,1, - ;,,. s 49

50 : ) : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 11 ; ) : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 11 ; 12 ; 13 [131] [41] , ,5 : 10 0,1,, - 10 %, 10 %,, : () -, -. -

51 (), , -,. () (), (). (), -,. - 0,01, ,001. () - 0,1 %. C [18]. () - 10; 5; 2; 1; 0,5; 0,25; 0,1 (. 2.18) [136] :, 2, 100 ;, 10 % 2, 500 ;, % 2, 1000 ;, 30 % 2, , -,, -. [18]

52 (. 2.18, ) ,,,,,.. -, ;, -.,, % -,.. [18].,,., () 0,1. -, -,. -. 0,1,,..., -,. -. % = 100 m / m 1, m, ; m 1, -,., - : 10; ; 5...2; 2...1; 1...0,5 0,5 - ; 10; ; 5...2; 2...1; 1...0,5; 0,5...0,25; 0,25...0,1 0,1. 1 %, : 10, 2, 0,

53 [18] ,., - 1,. : 20 ; 30 ; : ; ; ; [136],,, , , 100 3, , -,,.,, -, 53

54 1 0, ,, ,., %-, ( ).. 1 0,1, , -,, 0,1,.,, 0,1., -.,,,, -,, ,5; 0,25 0,1.,, 10; 5; 2; 1; 0,5; 0,25; 0,1.,,., 0,1, , %- 6,7%- - : 4%- (Na 4 P 2 O 7 ); 6,7%- (Na 4 P 2 O 7 10H 2 O). - 1,, ,,, R , 0,05 0,01 0, ,5 5 ( ) -., 20, - [18]. 54

55 10; ; 5...2; m f 100, m 0 m f, ; m 0,,. m : m1 m0, 1 0,01w m 1 - ( - ), ; w ( ), %. L 0,5; 0,25 0,1 - m1 L (100 R), m0 m 1,, ; m 0 ( ) ( ) ; R 1,0, %. L c ( %) R Lc (100 R), wm0 L c, %;, / 3 ; w, 1 / 3 ; m 0 -, ; R ; R - 1,0, %. -, -. 0,10...0,05 : 100 %, - [18].,.,, (. 2.12), 100 %, 1.. -, -, , ( ) -, [18] () () (),, > ,5...1, ,25...0, ,10...0, ,05...0, ,01...0, , , <0,002 55

56 , %, : ) ; ) [136]: ( BS), ; ), 25100, ISO ASTM D 2487, ISO :2004 Geotechnical investigation and testing Identification and classification of soil Part 2: Classification principles and quantification of descriptive characteristics) ASTM D Standard Test Method for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes 56

57 , - (. 2.20).,,. 0,001,, lg10 = 1, 5, - 0,01; 0,1; 1; , 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ,,, -., - (BS), ,,, BS,, (. 2.12). - ( -, uniformity coefficient) [34], C u = d 60 / d 10, d 60, ( ) 60 % ( ); d 10, 10 % ( ). u - (. 1,. 2.3 [34]).,,, 1, -.,.,., ASTM D 2487 : 300; 76,2; 19; 4,75; 0,425 0,075 ; ISO ; 200; 63; 20; 6,3; 0,63; 0,2 0,063.,, : 800; 400; 200; 100; 60; 40; 20; 10; 4; 0,5; 0,25; 0,1 0,05. 2 d30 ( Cc ) d60 d10 d 60, d 30 d 10., -,., -,, -, - (), -, ASTM d 60, d 30 d 10. -,,., ASTM 0,075 >0,05, 0,05...0,10, <0,10 [113]. 57

58 , ( ), -, -.,, -. -,,, [34] [34] -,, -,, : ; - ; ;,, - ;, ; - ; ; ; ; (); - [111]., -. :, [50]., -.,,,,,,,. - (,.).,, -,., % (. 2.21); %, 30 %., - -,. 58

59 , , (. humus, ) , -,, % [123] - -,,,, - ( - ) ( 2, 2, N 4,.). -. : (), (), (), (). - ( 60 %), ( %), ( 10 %).,,, - ( 40 % ) -,,. (). () % ( - ), %, %, %, 0,7...1,2 % 0,5 %, -. - : ( ), ( ), (==) ( N) (. 2.22). -, -, -., ( 17 20), [50] 59

60 -. -, -, -, [50] , - - (. 2.16) - (, ) ( ) - I r. -, () ( ). - D pd, D as [15], D pd [48] (. 2.18) v. -, - -, -. -, ,, -,., -. - : -.,,,. (,,, ),, -. :,,.,, 10 %., - () (- ).,, -,,. - (, - ), - 90 %., -,, -,., -,,,,. 60

61 - ( 0,9), ( 1) ( 1,5).,. 0,9...1,5.. ( - ), 0,7...0,8.. ( 2,0, - ), 0, %. - 2,22...2,83 / 3, 1,17...2,02 / 3, 1,15 1,60 / 3.,, [111]. -..,.. (. 2.13)... :,,,,, 3, Si 2 10 % () <0,01, %, <5 >0, ,1...0, ,05...0, <0,01 >50,. 0,3 2,0, - (>60 %), (<1),,.,,, - (w > w l ), -. -, - [64] (. 2.14),,, u

62 [64] 2.14 I. (- (R > 400 ) I. - ) (R ) II. ( ) (R ) (R 2,5 15 ) (R 0,5 2,5 ) ( > 30 ) (- II. III. II. II. ( ) ) ( < 30 ) ( u > 50 ) ( u ) ( u ) ( u 5 10 ) II. ( ( u 1 5 ) ) ( u < 1) III. - ( <1/) III. - III. ( >1/) ( 0,1 0,01...0,10) ( - 0,1 0,10) ( 0,10 0,25) ( - 0,25 0,50) ( - 0,50) - : ( ), ( - ) - ( - ). : ( ), ( - ), ( ), ( ) ( )., : ;, ; -.., -.,,, 6. -, -,..,. - -, [64]. ( ), ( ), ( 62

63 ). (ASTM D4373) [113] [113] % 10%- HCl,, % % % (. saprós pelós, ), % ( ). I r 0,50.. (. 2.16).., -, -,, [34] 1. I r,.. 0,05 < I r 0,10 0,03 I r 0,10 0,10 < I r 0,25 0,25 < I r 0,40 0,40 < I r 0,50 I r > 0,50 2. I r,.. 0,10 < I r 0,30 0,03 < I r 0,07 0,30 < I r 0,50 0,07 < I r 0,10 I r > 0,50 I r > 0,10 3. I p, % 1 I p < 7 7 I p < 17 I p 17 ( ) -,,,. «-»,,.. -,, -,,,.,,..

64 %, - 60 %., , -, : -,, -, -., -. 0,5...10,0 ( ) %., (- ), (, - ),., % % %, %, %. 17,,,,,,,,,,., 7 % [128] ,,, 0,25 5 % %, 1,4 2,6 / 3 ; 0,05 0,5 / 3. - [111].,,. - (,,,,.), (,, -,,,,,,,, ),. - :,,. - ( ) (- ), I r,,. I r - (. 2.16) [34],. - I r. [31]. -,

65 , ( ). -, ( ). : - [31]. -, 10 %,, -,. -, -,. -,,,, -, 10 %, ,,., - 1,724.,, -.,,. 1, : -,,,,, - ( )., -, [60]. [34], -., % ( ). - : -,. - I r , ISO ASTM D 2487 ( ) ( t = 105 ) , - 50 % ( ). (,,,,, ), (. 2.23).,, - ;, - 65

66 , : %, %, 6...6,5 % 0,5...2,3 %, -.,. -,.. : %, %, %,,, 10 %, 5 %, - () 1, % [51]. -, -,. -, [74]. :,.. -,,., (,, ), ( ) [51].. (, ), d- 50 /, ,.. -,. -.,, -. ;,.. (. 2.17) -, -., -., -.. -,, ( 50 %) - ( ). 15 %, [74]

67 ,,., ( 60 %), ( %), ( 10 %);.,,. -,,, -., -, ( 40 % ),,.,,. - [3, 74] ( % ) 19,0 29,0 10,0 2,0 20,0 27,0 18,0 8,3 25,0 27,0 26,0 11,7 28,0 26,0 16,0 2,5 37,0 17,0 19,0 20,0 21,0 28,0 6,4 50,0 / 23,0 2,8 50,3 19,0 19,0 2,6 1,20 1,89 / 3, - 1,84 / 3, 2,08 / 3, 1,0...1,2 / 3, 0, ,230 / 3. 6,6 37,5.. [70]. - D pd, I r [39] D as (. 2.18) [34] D dp, % (..) D dp < D dp 45 >45 2. D as,.. ( %) <0,20 >0,20 3., -, -,, - -, -,, - -, -,, -

68 D as,..,,,, ( ) - -. : -,,,,,, - (,,.).,, - (. 2.19).,,. [15]. D as ( ), 800 ± 25 - ( 0,006 ). - 2 % [74] (AInus glutinosa) (Beiula pubescens) (Phragmites communis) ( lasiocarpa) (. appropinquata) (Eriophorum polystachyon) (Menyanthes irifoliata) (Equiselum heleocharis) Drepanocladus vernicosus Sphagnum obtusum (Pinus silvestris) (Andromeda polifolia) (Chamaedaphe calyculata) (Ledum palustre) (Eriophorum vaginatum) (Scheuchzeria palustris) Sphagnum magellanicum (Sph. medium) Sph. fuscum Sph. angustifoimm 68, %, % 98,29 1,71 99,25 0,75 94,60 5,40 96,66 3,34 91,43 8,57 95,61 4,39 95,07 4,93 82,34 17,66 94,79 5,21 94,93 5,07 98,20 98,05 98,58 98,92 97,25 97,25 96,10 97,10 96,15, -. -, -. / -,., [15], 800 ± 25, 440 ± 25. -, : ; - ;, 200, 65 ;, ,80 1,95 1,42 1,08 2,75 2,75 3,90 2,90 3,85

69 , ,,. D d,.,, - ( ),,. D d [14, 48]. - :,, -, ( ). [48] , -, , -, 0, %., -,. 65 % ( ) (, 2 / 3 3 / 4 ) 5 %. 24,,, %.,,... -, -.,, ,, ,,. -,, -,., 5 %. -,, 10 %.. 50, - 105, 0,25.,. 69

70 105. a Ddp %, b ; b,.,, (. 2.24), - ( ) , ,, ,5...1,0 3 -, -,., [14] , ,, -. -., ( 1 ), -, Das, % w,.., , -, ( 1 ) ,,.,, ,,., - - <20 >12 > >

71 -., -.,. 0,7...1,5 3, - 0,3...0,5. 0,7...1,0 3. -, , -,.,,. (- ) [48]., - -, - -.,,, : (,, ); (,,,,, ); (,, ) , ,, 10 % [48], % 71 -, ,7 0,9 1,1 1,5 1,5 1,7 1,8 2,0 1,7 2,2 2,7 10 1,3 1,7 2,3 2,9 2,9 3,5 3,5 4,0 3,4 4,4 5,4 15 2,0 2,5 3,5 4,3 4,3 5,6 6,3 7,0 5,5 7,5 8,6 20 2,6 3,3 4,6 5,7 5,7 7,8 9,2 10,3 7,7 11,0 11,8 25 3,3 4,1 5,8 7,1 7,1 9,9 12,0 13,8 10,0 14,5 15,0 30 3,9 4,9 7,0 8,5 8,5 12,0 14,8 17,3 12,2 18,1 18,1 35 4,6 5,7 8,3 9,9 9,9 14,2 17,7 20,3 14,4 20,9 21,3

72 -, %. 2.21, ,2 6,5 9,6 11,3 11,3 16,3 20,5 23,0 16,5 23,9 24,5 45 5,9 7,4 10,9 12,8 12,8 17,9 21,7 24,8 18,0 25,6 26,9 50 6,5 8,3 12,2 14,3 14,3 19,4 23,0 26,5 19,5 27,3 29,4 55 7,2 9,2 13,5 15,8 15,8 21,0 24,2 28,1 21,0 29,0 31,9 60 7,8 10,0 14,8 17,2 17,2 22,5 25,4 29,7 22,4 30,7 34,3 65 8,5 10,9 15,9 18,7 18,7 24,1 26,7 31,2 23,9 32,4 36,8 70 9,1 11,8 16,9 20,2 20,2 25,6 27,9 32,6 25,3 34,1 39,3 75 5,3 12,7 17,9 21,6 21,6 27,2 29,1 34,0 26,7 35,8 41,8 80 5,7 13,5 18,9 23,1 23,1 28,7 30,4 35,2 28,1 37,5 44,2 85 6,0 14,4 19,8 24,6 24,6 30,3 31,6 36,5 29,5 39,2 46,7 90 6,4 15,3 20,8 26,1 26,2 31,8 32,8 37,7 30,9 40,9 49,2 95 6,7 16,2 21,8 27,5 27,8 33,4 34,1 38,9 32,3 42,6 51, ,1 17,0 22,7 29,0 29,4 34,9 35,3 40,2 33,8, -., - -,,, -. -,, -,,,,, ( ).,.,,.,,,,,. -, (-, )., -,, -, [51].,.,, (. bitumen )..,,, -.., -. -,. ; ,. : , - 72

73 .,,, , ( 6 ), ( 4 ), (, ) [51].,, -,.,. (),. -.,.. - -,, -,...,..,.. (1978) [51]: 1), ( 2...2,5 %),, -,, - - ; :,, -, ; 2) (1,5...2 %),..;, - ;,,, (); 3), ; -,, ;,,.,,. -, , [56], - 3-, -,., -,, -., - -.,, -,, -., D dp -. -, -.,, -,

74 ,,, -,,,., :, -, -,. -,., - 10 %., /, /. -,, - ( ),,,., /, -,,.,,,,,,, -,,,, /.,,, -..,,,., ,. - -., - -, -,,, - [20]. - 6, [63] : ; ; :,,,,. : -,,, ( ), (. 2.25). - 74

75 , ,., - (,, ) - [73]., -,,,..,.,,,,,,,. () -, -,, - -. (D dp = %) -, -.. -, :, :,.,, - (), ()., - -,. -,,,. -,. -,,., -,,,. -,, , ,, ,, 5 3,,., , 5 %.. 75

76 , ,, %. -,, 100 % %. 5 %, «.» %., -, 5 % -,.. -,. 2.22, % [69] 6,2 1,5 1,5-4,7 1,1-0,9 0,8 15,6 2,5-2,0 1,1 1,9 2,3 1,1-3,1-3,4 3,9-1,3-1,3 2,1-6,0-2,7 9,8 16,3 3,5 0,9 «-» [119], C.H., 40 (. 2.26).,. : ( %), (4...6 %), ( 4 %), -,. -,,. 76

77 [119]

78 , (, ) - 40 % %. 35 %, -, 35 % %, %, %; 5 % [51]. -, %, 60 % ; -..., «-». -, (-..,..,.. ) [63].,,,,, -, -, -,,, -,, , 25 %,, 65 %, 85 %, 95 % - ().. () 1,2...1,5 2 ( % - ), 3,89...5,70 2 ( % ), - 1,6...1,68 2 ( %). - (. 2.27),, ( - ) -, 7, ,, - 0, ( - 78

79 ),, 0 0,3. -,,...,, :, -,, -,,, (),. -,, (),.,,,,, -.,, ( ),,, -,., -. -, -. -, -. -,.., :, ;,, - ;, ;, - ;,., ()., 50, -,., , -, [57]., -, () - [34]....., «,,,,,,» [57]...,,,,,., (, ), -. : (, - ); () (, ).. 79

80 (),,. () -, -. (), - ( ) ( )., -., 2, (2, ). ; ( 0,92 / 3 ). () - 0, , 104,5 (. 2.28, ) , (),., ( ), ( ) ,,, (. 2.28, ).,,, -,., ( - ),,,.,.. (1940), - ( = 3 ) - 3,1...3,2, 2,1...2,5. 80

81 ,,,, 0,8.,, = (),,, = ,,, -., - ( 0 ).,, -, -, [50].,,, (t = 0 ),,. - :,, XX., - ( ). -,, -., ( 2 S, 2 S, 2 T). ( ) - ( 1,4 / 79,69 /) (0,51 /-). ( ), -., (-, ),., (0,45),,. -,,. ( - 0,92 / 3 ),. -,,, -. - ( ) ,,, 0 94.,.. -, -,, [50]. 81

82 2.3.2., -, -. [34], -, (. 9.1)., - [34], (. 2.23): t; i i ; i tot ( ); D sal ; (-, - );. i i,.., ,.,. [86]. i tot,.., -, ( wtot ww ) itot ii i, i (1 w ) i ic -,..; i i,.., s( wtot wm) ii, ( w 0,1 w ) i s tot w w tot,..; i, 0,9 / 3 ; s, / 3 ;, / 3 ; w m,,.. (: w m w p, w p,..); w w -,.. (, w w = k w w p, k w, t - I p ) [34]., : 0 i tot 1. i tot = 0 ; i tot = , m ; T h - ; T bf ; S r ( ). :, - ;, : 0,3 ; 0,6 ; 1 ; 1,5 ; 82 i tot

83 , - ( - ), ;,, [34] 1. t, () T 0 T < T bf 0 > T T bf T < 0 ( w tot 3 %). T < 0 2. i i,.. i i 0,03 i i 0,01 0,03 < i i 0,20 0,01 < i i 0,05 0,20 < i i 0,40 i i > 0,05 0,40 < i i 0,60 0,60 < i i 0,90 3., i tot,.. i tot 0,40 0,40 < i tot 0,60 i tot > 0,60 4. ( - ) (m 0, 1 ) t < T h, (m > 0,1 1 ) t, t < 0 T h = 0 T h = 0 T, h < t < T bf T h = 0,1 S r < 0,8 w tot 3 % T h = 0,3 T h < t < T bf S r < 0,8 T h = 0,6 T h = 1,0 T h < t < T bf T h = 1,5 5. D sal ( NaCl, Na 2 SO 4 90 %) D sal, % D sal < 0,05 D sal < 0,15 D sal < 0,20 0,05 D sal < 0,15 0,15 D sal < 0,35 0,20 D sal < 0,40 0,15 D sal < 0,30 0,35 D sal < 0,60 0,40 D sal < 0,80 D sal 0,30 D sal 0,60 D sal 0,80 6.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 83

84 . -. D sal %, -. ( ) D sal, %: 0,10; 0,15; 0,20; 0,25., : 1000 ; -, ; 15 ; ,. -, 100. g g = g 1 (1 + w), g 1 ; w,.. 500,, 5,, ,, ; 0,01, -. D sal = g z (1 + w)100 / g 1, g z, ; g 1, ; w, , ,.,,., -,. -, -., (), ,..,..,.... [2]. 84

85 -.,, -,,,., (. 2.29).,,, -., -, 100,,, -,,,,. ( ),. (. clathratus ) ( ) XVIII..,... () , ,, -,, 85

86 . - M nh 2 O, -; n, -, (n - 5,75 17,0).., - (. 2.30): (5 12 ), 12 5 ; ( ), ; ( ) ,91 Å (5 12 ), 4,33 Å ( ) 4,68 Å ( ). I II. I -, 2 6, II, ,, -.,,, :,,, - -,,. : ; ; ; ; 2 S 6 2 ; N ; 2 6 2, - ( 2 4 ) ( 3 6 ) :5,75,

87 , 194 [2]. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; : ; ,. -,,, - ( ). -.,,,,.,,, -,.,, -. -, -.,,.,,. -, -.,,,,. -,., : 21,5 ; 14,5 ; 5,5 ; - 2,5-1.,. -,,. -,, - [2],. -,, - 87

88 ., -,.. -,,.,. -,,, :, -,.,,. -., -,., (, ), - -,, -.,, -, 60 % (. 2.32). - -, -.,,,,,.,,, ( )., :, -,. - -,., [55].. -,, -,.,, -., - 88

89 25, - [55]. -, ( ),, -. -, , ,,. - - (,,.),., ( - ), , ( ) , (, -,.)., -,, :,,.., -,,.. :,,, -.,, -. [34] ( ): K sof ; S r ; I p ; I l. -, - (. 2.33, ) [66]: ; ; (r 1, ; l, 0, ;, 104,5 ),. -, 4 : 2,, 2,. 4 - (. 2.33, ). - 89

90 (1,86 D), - ( ) (, - ). - :, -..,,.,, : - -,., «-»,., [50]. (. 2.24),, [66]: () - ; ( ), -.,,. () [50] ( ) (, - ) ( ), ,..,..,..,..,. -, -..,.,..,..,..,..,..,..,..,..,..,... ( 0, /), ,31...0,35 3,.. 42 %.., -., - -, - 90

91 ( ),, -. -,. 0,001. : ( /) -, ( 40 /) (- ) [66],, (. 2.34).,. -.,,,. [66]., 5 () 1,5 % 1,02 / 3., 1,2...1,4 / 3 ( 1,8...2,4 / 3 ). -, 1 : 0,2...0,3 1,1, 10 1,6 (. 2.35) (/ 0 ) (h): ; 0 [66] (h) : 1 ; 2 [66]., ,,.. -, 91

92 .,, -., 0 (273 ). -,, ,. -,.,,.,,., (. 2.37), - (. 2.36). : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; [66] ;, ()..,,.., -, , , - 0,5...0,6, , -. 0,03 30 %., -,., 92

93 , -.,, -,,,.,. -,,.,,, -. -.,,.. ( ),., -. - :. -,, -,,. (. 2.38) :, (), (d)., -, (), - (d).., -, - (.. - ; ). (. 2.38). : ; b ;, ; d, - ;, ; k [66] 93

94 - ( ) - ( - ),., ( ) -,, , h, (, - ). : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; : -, - [66] : h = ±2Tcos/rg, T, -,. - : h 1,0; 1,0 < h 2,5; h > 2, [66]: 1), -,,, ( ), (. 2.39, ); 2) -, (. 2.39, )., 2,0...3,5 12,0...35,0 35, ,0 120, ,0 350, ,0 650, ,0 400,0, 2500, : 1) ( ); 94

95 2) -,,, -, [50, 66] ,. -, -, (-,.),, -.., ;, -, ,.,.. - Sr. -, S r < 0,5 0,6. S r 0,8 0,9. -,, -, -, , ; ( ). -,, , ,.. -., -, : 2 > N 2 > 2 > 2,, -...., %. -., - 95

96 : = 2/r, ; r.., -, ( 2 ),., -,, -., (, N 2, N 4, 2, S 2.). - :,..,,,,, [50]. -.,. -,,., - 3 [50]., -,, ( ),,,., -. -, -.,,. -,.. [49]. ()., -. (.. ) (.. ). ( ) (), -. [50].,, -. ( %), 2, 2, S 2, 2 S, 1, F, N 2, NH 3, r, ,, -,,. 96

97 .. - 4, (), N 2, 2 S 2,., -.,,. ( ), -.. 2, 2, N 2, 2 S 2 ; 2, - N 2.., ,,. 2, 2, 2, r ( - ), 4, 2. -,.,,,.,. 0,001 %. -,,. -,.. ( 98 %),,,...,.. (2000), 0,1 40 /( 2 ). (, ) - ( 2 ), (H 2 S), (H 2 ). - 2, 0,2 2 % ( ) (,,.),,,,. -,. :,,. : - [50].,,, - ( ) -,, - ( ). 97

98 .,,.,. -,, , -. -,,, -, (3 /) Eh. - (FeS n 2 ),.. 2 H 2 S., -. H 2 S - 4, -,,, XVII XIX.,.,, 2, -,, [118] , -. [50]:., %,, -.,, : V 100 %, V V, ; V tot. - %, ( - tot 98

99 ), ( - ). m, 3 /, - (), - 1 (): V m. m - G, (V ) (V ) : V G =. V, - G = 1 S r. G 0 ( ) 1 ( ) [50] , -, - -, - -, - -, -. () (), (). -,. -, -., -., - ( 4, 2, H 2 S), , : - 7, [50].. - (, 1963) [60]: 0,2,,,, - ; 0,2 4,,, ; ,,, (,.); 80,, -,,,,,, -,.. 99

100 ,, ( - ),., -, : (,, - ); (- ); ( ). : (,.); ( ; -, ;,, -, ); (- );, (, -,, ). -,,. -,..... (1983), 1,5 /, 2 ; ,5 / 1, [50].. () - (). :,,,,,. -., ; ;,,., , , , (,,,.). -, -,,,., -, ( 5 /); -,. 100

101 (,,, - ) (N, C, H, P, O, S) -.,, ; ; ; ; ;,, [50] ,. -. -, - -,, -, -. - :,,,,,,., (,, ), -., -., -,. (,, - ), /, -,, -. -.,, -,,.., -,,. -,, :,,, -,., -.,, -., -, -. -,, -, (,,,.) - (,,.),,,,. -,.,,., 101

102 ,, -,. (-, ),, - -. ( - ). ().,. -, -,,,,,,,,. -,,.. -,.,, -, -., [68] ,. 2.27, [118], / [118], %,, / 1, ,8 2,1 0,2 0,4 3, ,9 0,7 0,1 0,3 1, ,7 7,0 0,6 2,6-7, ,8 10,7 0,7 3,8 1,0 8 57,1 25,4 1,6 15,9 5, ,1 23,4 1,3 16,2. : ) 1,0 ; ). 102

103 , -,,,,. -,. -,, -., -,,. - :,, - ;, -.,,, -.,,,,., [51].,. - ().,, (.), (./,./ 3..). - 1, - - (/ 3. ). :,,. -,, 2.,, - 2 2,. -, ;, ;, - / ; -,.,,. -,, ; (),

104 (0,1...10,0 ), ;, - ;. - :., (). / /. [118] , , -, º. -, , (/): (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 2,0; 2 4 1,0; MgSO ,4; FeSO ,4; NaCl 2,0; ,0...1, ; 10 2 ; , 20. 1,, -.. (/ ) (/): (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 2,0; l 0,1; 2 4 0,25; MgSO ,25; Ca(NO 3 ) 2 0,01; - ; 2,0 4,0. 2 (/): 8,0;. 3 (/): FeSO ,0;. - 1 (1:1), 45, 3 1 % FeSO 4, ( 0, ) 0,3%- - (60 10, 10 1, 0,5 3, 45 )

105 (/): Na 2 SO 4 5,0; NH 4 Cl 0,1; NaHCO 3 1,0; Na 2 HPO 4 2H 2 O 2,0; MgCl 2 6H 2 O 0,1; FeSO 4 H 2 O ;., -, FeSO 4. 9,2 9, ,, -. (/ ) -.,. (/): NaCl 1; 2 4 0,5; NH 4 Cl 1,0; CaSO ,0; MgSO ,0; (70 %) 3,5; 1,0; 1,0; 1,0; FeSO 4 7H 2 O 0,5;. - 5%- 1%- -. 7,5, 5%-. -,,, ,. - 0,1...1,0., -. - (/ ) -.,, - - ()., 0,5...1,0 0,5...1,0, , () (k, /) (. 2.28). k /, -. -,. - -,, -,. -,, ( 4, N 2, H 2 ), -, 105

106 -, [118], / k, / ,.,,,,,, (. 2.29) [118]. -. ( - ): -,,,, -,, -, [118] < 30 / 80 / 0,,., >25 >15 0,15...0,22 2,0...8,0 <10 0,03...0, , -,..... [65], %, , -... [65] -., -, (, ) %,. 2, %, %. - -,...,,. 106

107 3.,,, ,,,, , ,. -,, [120]. (-,,,,,,,,,,,,, -,, HCl,,,,,.). :, -,,,,, -. ( 2.1.2, ),, -, -,. ( ), - -. (, -, ), EL Soil Colour Charts (. 3.1), EL Tropical Soil Colour Chart,,, - [136]. -, -.,,,, -, EL Soil Colour Charts

108 ,.,,,. -, -,,,.,,.,,, -,. [50]., -,,, - (,,,, ) -., -. ( ),. (. structura, ) (. ttura,, )., «-», -. -, -,. -,.. - -,,, -,.,... (1983) : ; -; ( ); ; ( -, -- ); () [50].,, (.. - ) (.. )

109 ,,. - :,,,,,,,, - ( ), ( ), -, ( ), - ( ),,,.. -,,,. ( R c 5, R c < 5 - ). :,,,, -..,, -., -. :, -,,. :, -, -, -,.. 7, : -, - ( );, (). : (, ); ( ); ( ). - - ( )., - :. - :,,. -, -, -. -, - :,, ( > 1 ). (- ) ( ). -. -,.,,, ; -,..,, -,,,

110 . :, -,.., -, -.,,. :, ( ), ; ;. - : ),, -,.,,,., %; ),,,, , %. - ; ),, -,,,,,, -,. -. -,,, -, %; ),., (), - -., -,., (),,. -,,,,. -,,. - :,,

111 : ),,,, ; ),, -, -, ; ),,, -,, ; ),,, (ISO ).., -,,.,.,,. -., -, -,., -, , 1, 1...5, , ,, , : (-,..),, -, (,,,,..),,, (,,,..), ( )

112 , -. j 1, -, RQD (. 3.2). (. 3.2),.,.,.. -.,. [61]: n bi K. 100 %, i1 ai bi b i i- ; a ; n. 3.2 [109] M j RQD, % 1, , : I II. : >6 %; 4 5 %; 3 4 %; 2 3 %; 1 2 %; <1 % [61] (), -,,, -, (. 3.3).. (,, ). 3.3 [109] I, II, III IV V VI VII ,1...1,0 VIII 2 0,1

113 -, -., -. :, -. ;, -. ;,, : ) ; ), ; ),, ; ),,,. (- ). : HCl; -,, HCl; HCl;, ; ; -.,. -,, -,, -,,,,., 2 50 %. - -,, -.,. -,. -,. -, (, -, ). 113

114 ,., -. -, 5- (..,. 3.3) , [89]: 0 () ; 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4, -,, , -,., , (,,, - ),, - [82]., -., - ( 10 %) () 2, - (. 3.4): I, 10 %. 1 - (,, ). II, %. II -,.,.,, -,,. - II (. 3.4) :, - ( 2 ),, -. III, 65 %., -. [120]

115 ,, - (. 3.4). ( 40 % 30 % ) , -., - ( ). 3.4 [50] () (), (), - (), ( : -,.),, %., : (, -,, ),,, -,,,, (),. - (. 3.5),,., -. -,, , % -, -,. 90 %,, («-», «-»).,. 90 % -, [91]. - 10%-.,,. - : (d )

116 1), ; 2), 25 %, - (, ); 3) (0,5...2,0 %), - -,. () -,..,, ( %),,,,. (, -, ),, -.. : -. : 3 %,, -, ; %,,, ; %,, - ; 15 %,, -, ;,.,,. - : 0,0 0,5; 0,5 0,8; 0,8 1,0. -, -. -,., -. :,,. (, - ). - (, ). -, (. 3.5). - -, -, -. -, :,

117 ( ) ( ) ( D) (S r ), [50] ,,,,.,,, -,,,,, -,,,. : (, ), (), (). - -., -., -. -,,,., -., -. - : 1. (CaCO 3 ). -, : ) ; ) ; ), ; ), ; ), -, - (,, ) %- - (HCl)., - (, )., - :.,. 2., (NaCl, CaCl, MgCl 2, Na 2 SO 4 10H 2 O.),,. 3. (CaSO 4 2H 2 O),,,.,,.. -,,. 4. (Fe 2 O 3 nh 2 O),.,,,,, -,.,. 5. (FeO)., - -,. -,

118 , -. -, ,,,, -, [120]., -., -, -. : - ( ), ( - ),,,,,, -,,.,, ( - ).,., -,,. -, :,, ;,,, ;,, ;. 2 () (), %, («-») (), % % -.,., -, 0,10...0,05. :,,,, ;,,,,,, ;,,

119 :,,,,, ;,,, ;,,,,, ;,,,,, ;,,,, 3 ;,,,.,. -,.,, - : ), ; ) (Fe 2 O 3 nh2o),, ; ) (SiO 2 ), (CaCO 3 ), (Al 2 O 3 2SiO 2 2H 2 O),. -. :, ; : ),, -; ), -,, -; ), -,, - ; ) -,, -; -,., -,, -,.., -,, -, () [89], () ().,,.,, ( ) (,.) , :,

120 :, -. :, -, - - [89] , ( - ) : -, - ; : (-);, : (n > 49 %), - (43 % < n < 49 %), (39 % < n < 43 %) (n < 39 %); -, - ( 0,002 ): ( 10 %), ( %), - ( %), ( %) ( 60 %)..... (1968), (). - :,,,. : (, - ), ;,,, :, -,,, -,,, (,,,, ). -.,.. (1988), -, -, ( ). : 1 1. «-».,.,, ( ). (, ), ( ), -. -, 10%-.,, «-»,., (, ) - :,,,,.. -,,,,,. -,,., -,

121 ,. -,,,., -,,. -, ( ). () -. (), -. (- ),. - : ) : ; ) :, ; ) : -, [120] (),.,,. ( ): -,,, (,, ), (,, ), (,,.), (, -.),,,,, -,. -, [119, 51]. :,,,,. - -,. ; , -.,. -,, 60 %, - -,,. - 1,0...1,5 -., - - ( 60 %), -,,. -, , -,., - 121

122 ,, , ( 25 %). -, -, -, -, -. -, - -.,, 50 %,,, -,. - -, -. -,,,,. -,, -. -, ( 60 % ), ,. -,,.,,., -.,. -, 80 %. -.. :,,,,,,., -., -,, - -. (D dp = %) -,. -., -, ,. -,. 122

123 , -,. -, -. -, 40 %, : -, :,.,, - (, ), () , -, 60 % ;,... -,., -,., %., () ,, %, -,. -, , -, %. - : - -, -, -., 60 %.. [90, 119]: 1) - (-, -); 123

124 2) (-) : - ;, ; ; 3) -:,, ; -, ; 4) : ;,, - ; 5) : ;, ; 6) - : ; -, ; 7) :, -; 8) :, ;, - ; 9) : -,. -,,, -,., -. -,,,,,,.., (,, ), (, -, ),. -, -.,,,. - -, -,, : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 11 ; 12 ; 13 ; 14 ; 15 ; 16 ; 17 ; 18 ; 19 ; 20 ; :, ,. 3.6.

125 ,,,..,,, -., -., -,. :,,,. : -,,,.. -:,,. -. : (-, - ) (),. - - : () ; () -.. :, -, ;,.,,. - ( ) -., ±0,1. -, ( ). 3.2.,, [16]. -, -,. - -., -,,.,,.. -,, -.,, - ;. - :, ; -, ; ; ;,, ;. 125

126 . -.,,,.., -.., - 70.,,,. - -, , , [16] ,,, d h > 21 = 2,0...4,0 d h > 15 = 1,5...2,0 V (- ) ,, (- ) ,5 ()

127 : - ; - ; (,, ) : - ; - ; - ; «-» - «-», ,, -, - (), ; I L > 0,25; - -, ( ) ( - ), ( - ), -, -, d = h = 30 d 38 h/d = 2:1 2,5:1 d 71 h/d = 1:3,5 d 71 h/d =1:3,5 d 71 h/d = 1:3,5 d 71 h/d = 1:3,5 d 71 h/d = 1:3,5 d = h/d = 1:1 2:1 d 38 h/d = 2:1 2,5:1 127

128 ; - ; - : - -, - - ; - - ; ; - - ; ( ); ( ), ( ),, ( ),. 3.6 d 70 h/d = 1:3 1:2 d 71 h/d = 1:3,5 d = 71,4, h = 140 d = 49, h = 100 d = 71,4, h = 140 d = 49, h = 100 d 71 h/d = 1:3,5 d 70 h/d = 1:3 1:2 : d ; h ; d ; h ; ; V. 3.7 (), ,,,, -,, -, - 2.,,.,, ,, -.

129 , - [18]. - : -,,,., A r : A r = (d 0 2 d i 2 ) / d i 2, d 0 d i. A r < 10 %, -,. [16].,, (). 5.,, (,.) ( - ) ( ),.,, -,.,, , : 1,5 -,, ; ,,,, -.,,. -,,, % ; % -. -,., ; - () -,

130 -,.,., , 10 -.,,., -,.,, -,,,. -,, [56]. -.,,., (Specimen Quality Designation SQD) () (). - OCR < 3 5, - SQD. 0 4 %, - [5].,,,,, ,. F ( ),., -, : ; ; ; CD ; DE ; EF 130

131 EN ISO EN :2007 ( 7, 2, 3) - (,, ) -.,, 5,, (. 3.8): : 1 5; : 3 5; : 5- [5]. 3.8 :, : :,,,, EN ISO , -,,,., -., 3-.,,.., 5-,, -,.,. -, 2 3 (. 3.9) [113].,,, -. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 131

132 3.9, - - 1,,, 2 3, -, - 4 -,, 5, -,, ,,,. - () [5]. 132

133 4.,,,.,,.. -, -,. -,. :,, -,.,,, -,. 4.1.,., -.,. -, -,,. (w n ),, () (V w ) (V tot ), : Vw wn. Vtot %,.., 100 % ( 1..). (w), (), () ( w ) (m d ): mw w. m : w n w = w d, d, / 3 ; w, / 3. %,.., - 0 % ( ) ( 3300 %).,,, 1.. (100 %)., %,..,. 133 d

134 -, : ,,.,, (105 ± 5) º, (50 ± 2,5) º, (. 4.1). 4.1 [40], - ( ) - - [40].,, , -,. - (105 ± 2). (80 ± 2) 8. 3, 5. 1, ,02.,,, % 0,1 %, 30 % 1 %. -. w g, % -, ,, 1 2..,, : (w tot ); - (w m ); (w w ); -, (w i ); - (-), w ic. 134

135 (w tot ) -, 5180., (w i ) (w m ),,, (w ic ) - (w w ): w tot = w i + w m = w i + (w i + w w )..,, -. - [41]. w m, (w p ). w w -, w w = k w w p, k w,. 4.2, º I p = w L w p, w L, ( ). (-) w ic : w ic = w m w w. w i - w i = w tot w m. 4.2 k w [104] I p k w T, C 0,3 0, I p < I p 7 0,6 0,50 0,40 0,35 0,33 0,30 0,28 0,26 0,25 7 < I p 13 0,7 0,65 0,60 0,50 0,48 0,45 0,43 0,41 0,40 13 < I p 17 * 0,75 0,65 0,55 0,53 0,50 0,48 0,46 0,45 I p > 17 * 0,95 0,90 0,65 0,63 0,60 0,58 0,56 0,55. «*»,.., - 60 %, %, %., -,., - -.,,. -. -, 135

136 .,.,,,,. -,. (,, ), - (,,,, ) - (,, ). :, -,. (w g ) -. (w mg ) -..,,,., ,,,. - 1 : 10, 30.,,,. -,. (w ),. ( ),... -, (, ). (,, - )., (0, ),,,,.. (w sat ) ( - ). ( ) -,. -.,,., -, [50]. 136

137 ( ) S r - () (V w ) (V n ): V w w w Sr, Sr, V w V wsat w sat, e w w w sat, ; w ;. S r.., %, 0-1 ( 100 %). S r 1, ,,, - (,.), -. S r (5.4). : - S r < 0,5, 0,5 < S r < 0,8 S r > 0,8 (. 4.1). (w ),, (.. ).., - (w sat ) (w ): w = w sat w.,.,,,,. - (w sw ): w = w sat w sw. -. ( ),, [50]. - (w ), (w ) (K ). (w ) () -,...,., -, ( -.). 137

138 ,...., - ( ). - (w > w ), -. (w < w sat ), -. (w ) - (),,... -., -. ( ) (w sat > w ). -. ( ) - ( S r ): K w w K. K > 0,8, [50]. 4.2., ( ). :, -,,,, ( )..,. -. -,,, -,.. -,.,. -.,.,..,...,,,

139 ., -., , -. -,. -, w L (LL Liquid Limit) w (PL Plastic Limit), w sh (SL Shrinkage Limit)., -, : 1) (w ) (w L ),,, -, - ; 2) (I p ) - : I p = w L w. (I L ), w w p w w p I L, w w I L w. I L ( ) -. I p - I L [34]. I L -,, ( ),, ( ). I L -. I C ( ) -.,, - wl w wl w I. w w I L p p p p I L 139

140 [44]. (w ) -,, 3, , -.,,., -., 10, -., -, 6 ( ), ( - ). -,, , , 3., (. 4.3) w Wille Geotechnik,, Wille Geotechnik (. 4.3), -,.,, -. [44].,, ( - ) 2 (20 / 2 )

141 , (20 / 2 ). :,,,., -., [44]. (w L ) -, (w L ) -, -.,,., -, - -. (, ), 1, , - - 1, 1,,, ,. -,.,,., -..., -,,., ,,.. LL (w L ) BS (- ) STM () ,. (. 4.4), [136]. V-, 1,25. ( )

142 ,,., -, (w L ),., -, 1932.,., -, (. 4.5)., 0,4 () /60, 80 /30,, (w L ) : ; ;. -, 150-0,1,,., ,,. (%),,. - :, R n 1 R n 2 ; - 142

143 w 1 w 2 ; - N 1 = 132 R 1 N 2 = 132 R 2 ; lgn w w 1, lgn 1 w 2, lgn 2, ; N = 1 N = 25 - w L w p (. 4.6). -, / / /30, ,., - [50]. - I p - [34] (. 2.5)., (w L ) (w p ), ASTM (C) : Liquid limit (LL) Plastic limit (PL). (I ), Plasticity Index (PI). (I L ) Liquidity Index (LI). I (consistency index) 4 : I c 1,0 ; 1,0 > I c > 0,5 ; 0,5 > I c > 0,05 ; I c 0,05. -, w L LL,, -., - 1,00, ASTM BS 0,425., w L, LL ASTM.,,,,. -, (0,9 ). - ( ), [4, 113]: : w L = 0,71LL + 5; : w L = 0,75LL + 6,5; : w L = 0,79LL + 6,0 (, ); : w L = 0,67LL 4,1 ( ); : w L = 1,02LL 13,26; 143

144 : w L = 0,75LL + 6,5; : w L = 0,72LL + 5,8 w L = (LL + 8,3) / 1,48 [34]. w L LL, [113]. (w p ) Plastic Limit (PL) -, -...., - [122]: PL = 0,91w p + 2,2 PL = 0,90w p + 1,5; w p = 1,10PL 2,4; I p = 0,60PI + 2,6., -, - -, BS () ASTM, -, , -, BS ( - ASTM), BS [4] [4].,, -.,,,, -, (. 4.3).,,, -. -, - -, -., SL, % PL, % LL, % 8,

145 SL, % PL, % LL, % , -, PI. % () -. -, < 0,75 ( ), 0,75 < A < 1,25 ( ), A > 1,25, - ( ) [127]. 4.4, 1,0 7,0 0,5 1,0 0,5 0,1 0,5 0,5 1,2 0,5 1,2. -.,. - w > w sat -,,,.,, ,5 3 / [50]. 4.3.,.,, -. -,,,,,.

146 - - :,,,,.., / 3, / 3, - : m. V. -,,,. -, [41], ( ) (- ), -.,, [41] - -, ( ) -, -, -,,,, ( ) [44]. -, -.,,, , ,,, ,,,. 0,01 /

147 [44] , -, ,., ,,,.., -..,,.,,. -,. -, (, ).. -..,,. : -.,, , - (. 4.8). - -., -, -,, -.,. - 0,02, -., / 3, m pw, ( m m ) ( m m) p 1 2 w 1, ; m 1 -, ; m 2 ( - ), ; p, - 0,900 / 3 ; w, / : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; [130]

148 - m pw, p( m4m3) w( m1m),, p, - 0,900 / 3 ; w, / 3, m 3, ; m 4 -,., %, [76]..,,,.. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5, ; [130] - 0, , ,1., -,, - 0,1.,, -. [44] - - 0, , -., -, , -., ,02 / 3.,,, -.,,.. [86] ( )., 148

149 .,.. ( 50 3 ), -,, ( 0,01 ) :, ; ; ( ) [38] (. 4.10) ,0. - (. 4.10, ), 0,5 3,0.. -,, -.,.,,. -: ,. : - ; -, ; - (,..) [86]. - 1,5...2,0. - [86] , -,,

150 , ,3-2. ±(0,02...0,04) / , 1,30 2,20 / 3., -,, -., - 2,50...3,40 / 3 ( ); - 2,20...2,55; 2,40...2,65; 2,10...2,60; - 2,10...2,40 / ,02 1,10 / 3., ():, ; - : ;. -, - ( ) -,, -., -, [50]. s, / 3 / 3, ( ), : ms s. Vs, - -. [44]. -, , , ,., 1 / 3,.,, -. ( - ) : 0,5, 1. -,. -., - 150

151 ,. s, / 3, wmo s, m m m m 0, ; m 1, ; m 2, ; w, / m m 1 1,01w g 0, -, ; w g, %. s :, s ; (,,.);, -, ; (,.);,. - 2,50 2,80 / 3., (3,00...3,74 / 3 ), (, 2,63...2,75 / 3, 2,65...2,67 / 3 ) ,.,. 4.6 s, / 3 2,65 2,70 2,71 2,74 1,50, -. -, - [50]. s 1,20 1,89 / 3, 1,84 / 3, 2,08 / 3. s 1,4 1,6 / 3, 1,5 / 3. -,, [70]. 151

152 [69] s = 100 s s / (100 s D as ( s s ))., s = 1,5 / 3, - s = 2,65 / 3, : s = 345 / (230 D as ) [111] s, / 3,, % NaCl Na 2 S 4 Na 2 CO 3 MgCl 2 MgSO 4 CaCl 2 NaCl+MgSO 4 0 2,67 3 2,66 2,67 2,65 2,65 2,67 2,67 2,67 5 2,66 2,67 2,64 2,64 2,65 2,65 2,65 7 2,64 2,64 2,62 2,62 2,64 2,63 2, ,64 2,61 2,59 2,59 2,62 2,61 2,62 d, / 3 / 3, -, 105, () : d., -,. () (w) : d. 1 w d (. 2.2) [34]. I D. -,, -. -., - 47,64 % 25,95 % (. 4.11) %.,, - - :

153 (I D ), emax e I D, e e max ; e max ; e min -. I D - e max e min. - e min, e max. I D. 2.3 [34]. I D = 0, I D = 1. e max e min,. -., - I D,,,. -, - - ( max )., -, (w ). [28] ( - ). (. 4.12) : - ;. (2500 ± 25) - (300 ± 3) (99,8 ± 0,2). - 1,5.. ( ) /.,, -. (127,4 ± 0,2) (100,0 + 0,3) , (,, -..),. 153 min

154 , ( ) : [140]); ( ); [28]: 1 ; ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 2,5 ; 7 ; 8 ; %,, %, , 5..,,. -, %, 0,1 % mk(1 0, 01 wg) K 100, (4.1) m (1 0, 01 w ) p m k, ; w g - -, %; m p -, ; w k, %. (m p ') k

155 Q,, m' p Q 0,01( w1 wg ), (4.2) 1 0,01w m p ', ; w 1, , %; w g - -, %. 4.8 w 1, %, 4 6, 6...8, ,, ( ),,,,. -.., %, %. (4.2), w g w 1 -. : - ; , -., ; , - 2., -,. (m i ) - i, / 3, g 155

156 mi mc i, V m i, ; m c -, ; V, 3.,,.,. -., ,.,,,. - -., -, di, / 3, 0,01 / 3 di = i / (1 + 0,01w i ), i, / 3 ; w i, %. (. 4.13) : ) ; ) 156

157 . 1,0...1,5 % w i,. -. 1,0 % -, ; 1,5 % -., -, dmaxk d max, 0,01 K( ) k k dmax k, / 3 ; K, %. w' opt, %, w' opt = 0,01w opt (100 K). «-»,. di w i «-» s,, s di, 1 1 0,01wi s s, / 3 ; w, 1 / ,, 1,5 %, 10 % [28]. ( BS, ASTM ) -. -, : 20 ;, BS, 2,5 ( 4,5 ); ( 450 ); ASTM 2,5 ( 4,5 ); 305 ( 457 ). -, 50, 99,8. ELE, -, S, [136]. -,, -,,, w

158 : ; ; [136] 4.9, dmax w opt dmax w opt dmax w opt dmax w opt 1,0 1,0 0,99 1,02 0,96 1,03 0,97 1,02 1,02 0,87 1,05 0,84 1,06 0,85 1,06 0,88 (. 4.14)., n, %,. -,,, (. 4.15). -,,, -. - (V n ) (V): V n. V, -, ( ). 158

159 [37]. - ( - ), ( ) -. -., - ( s ), () ( d ): s d d n 1.. s,, -., (V n ) (V s );,.., %, V V : s d s e 1. d - : e 1 n ; V s. 1 e 1 e 159 d s s

160 (. 2.5)., -, -. 0,7 0,8. -, -., / 3, - = g, g = 9,81, / / 3., = ( w )g, w, 1 / 3.,, / IL > 0,25 ( ) / I L < 0,25 ( ). zg,. 160

161 5. (, ) -, (, ) ( ). - ),. -. k, /,,.,,. k, 2. - k = k w /, w, / 3 ;, c., = 0,010 2 / 20 º k = g / k 1 = / 0,01 / = 10 3 / = 0,9 /,..,,, /. -, ,, -,.,,, -, - (- ),. - d. - s. 0,2 ( ) 0,6 ( )., ( ). - (. 5.1), -,, -.,, u..., - u 10., d 10, - 161

162 ... d 17, - [95]. : 1 () ( ); [95] ( ) -., - : k = k 0, k 0, ; = 0,45(1 + 0,3),..,,,,., - : ( )., (- )., -,, n = 0,395 0,26 0,48,. -, - : d 0 = ed c, (5.1) d c.. - n( ),, n = n, n., 1. / n m 1, - n = 0,43 = 0,

163 .., : dn, d1 n d n d 1 n, ( ). ( ),, -, d 0. d 0 -, d c. - - : d 0 dc 0, 22 ; d 0 0,455 ed17. ( ), 0,4, : d 0 0,2d 50 [95]. -, , -., -,, , -,., -. - : Q k SI Q S I; k,. : vk i, v ; k -. ng 2 k d0; 36, d 0 0,2, ng 2 k 2 d0; 36,

164 g g d 2 2 0, t w = 4 ( v = 0, /) 2 ; t 3 4 w = d0 (v = 0,010 c 2 1 /c) 2, d d0 -.,,.. -, -.,, -, - - : i 2 v v k kt, : 2 v v,, k T k, -. ( ) -,..,, - -, i. : i < i, i, ( nd0 ) g i, v ( ) : 6 g v 1,3810 n J ; 2 i J : i.. (5.2) 164

165 vd g Re 1,3810 d J, i n Ji wg Ji d ( 0 w = 2, ). E w - 5 /, : v k i, k, k 6 17,9 n gd0 J i. - ( ). (), (), k, k (5.3) 0 k 0,, /; (..) - d < 0,1 ;, - [95]. 1, 0,17 0,048 L e L,,, w L. e L - : s L 1,06 wl, (5.4) s ; w. (5.3) -, , - (e L < 0,7), - - (e L > 1,5) [95].. -,, -, - : w [95] 165

166 : : 2 g v i; 12 (1 A / ) v g 10 i. 1 B / - 1 / 1 B/ (5.5) (5.6)., -. - [95]: v i 1,44 10 ; v 3 1, (5.7) g (5.7),, A B >>, -., [95] 3 v g Re i [95]: : 3 2 g i g i ( 1); 12 v 12 v : i i B100 g (100g 1). v T 2 2 v 166 (5.5) (5.6), -, -. - (-, ) -,, - I 0 (. 5.4) [6] -. -,

167 r,, I 0, 2 0 I0, gr 0,,.., 10 4 ; w ; g -. I > I 0 : w vki 4/3 I0 I0 /3 I0 / I., I >> I 0, : V k[ I 4/3 I ]., -. -,,. - I 0,.,, -. ( - )., -... [13],,.,,. -. I 0 = 10 3, 15, - ( 60 70) Na- -,.,,,, -,.,, - I < I 0,., - ( -,.) ,. [53], -.,

168 . - (- ):, -,, ; ; - (); - [126]. (), -.,., -, , , -, -., , ( ) , - - (4...6 ), -,

169 ,. -,.., -,.,,, -,. - ( ), - [19].. [35]. -. 1/5. - : -, (. 5.5) -01, -3, -3,. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 (); 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; ( -1 ) [35, 143]. -, ; ( ) 0,5...1,0-10.,,.,, ; - ;, 169

170 , - ; - ;,,. : -. ; ;,,,,,.,,. 10 ( 20) 3,,., - 20, 30, 40, 50 ( 20, 40, 60, 80) 3.. k, /, - 10, : 864Vw k ; t STI m V w, 3 ; t m - ( ), ; S, 2 ; I ; = (0,7 + 0,03 ) - 10,, ; / / [35]., :, / () ; (), - ;,, ( ); ; ( ). : -,. -,. 170

171 : - (. 5.6), - ; ; - ;. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6, 12 ; 7 ; 8 - ; 9, 11 ; 10 ; 13 ; [76]. - 2, 5 ; -. 0,98. ( ), [17]. str ( - ), 0,0025.,,, -. -,, -,,, -,.,,., (- ), - 0,5.. 5, 10, 15, 30, 1, -,.., - 40,. (k ), /, 10, k S S h ( / t) 864, H0 S T S, S, ; H 0, ;, H 0 171

172 S ; t, ; S - H 0, 2 ; S, 2 ; h,, ; T = (0,7 + 0,03 T ) - 10, T, ; 864 / /., - [35]. - :, (),,,, [84] k, / , ,1...0,7 0, ,4 0, ,15...1,0 0,01...0,15 5.3,, / /, <0,01 <0,005 0,01...0,1 0, ,05 0, ,05...5, , >100 >50.,, % %. -..

173 ...,..,.., : -,, - k ; -, ;, k , [50]., - k -,,.,,,,,,. -..,,.. : - [8, 74], [53], [59], [77], [65]... - [8], «-,»..... [6], -,,,,.,,,.,,,,. -., ( ) -. -, -. ( ) ( )

174 , -,., , -,. [50]: 1) (t p ),,, ; 2) (v ), m/m 0 t, m 0 ; 3),, (. 5.7). : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; [143] ( ) ,. -,. 1, - ( ).., (,,, ), -. : 1, 30, 1, 6, 24 48, ,, 2 4 5

175 % % 1 50 % 6 25 % % : 5.5 H Hp P 100 %, H, %; ; -.,. 48,., -. - (,, - ), - (,,.), -,.,,,., -,,, ,,,.,.,,. -., -.,,,...,, -., ; ( ). - - ( 50 %, 25 %).,,,, -

176 ,., -,.. -.,..,,, - [50] ,, -,, -., -. sof (..) - (R w ) - (R ). (k sof ), 0 1, [34]. : ( 0,75), -,,,, -. : (k sof ) - 0,95 1,0; ( 0,75),,., - (,,, -.), (,.) (, ). (.)., - 0,45, - 0,15 0,5., -,,. - ( ), -,. ( ),,,. 176

177 ,., -,. (), -. - (. 5.8): (), - ;, ( );, : ; ; [50] ().,,. -,,.,,.., -.,, ( ), ( ) () [35]. ( ), ( ). - [50]: 1) ( ) (v r ), -, ; 2) (I ) (h) (t),.. I = h / t; 3) (I c ), c (m) : I = m / t S, t ; S,. - 0,1 / 3, s = 2,65 /c 3,

178 , -. -,,. -,, -.,, -.,., -,,, -,,,.,, -,,. (. 5.6). : -. 0,05 0, , ,2 1,5,, [106], /,,, 0, ,05 0,52 0,55 0,60 0,62 0,25 0,37 0,39 0,41 0,45 0,50 0,41 0,44 0,50 0,52 1,00 0,51 0,55 0,62 0,65 2,50 0,69 0,75 0,86 0,90 5,00 0,87 0,96 1,10 1,17 25,00 1,46 1,65 1,93 2,12 75,00 2,01 2,35 2,89 3,14 100,00 2,15 2,54 3,14 3,46 150,00 2,35 2,84 3,62 3,96 200,00 2,47 3,03 3,92 4,31 300,00 2,90 3,32 4,40 4,94,,., -,, - -.,,. -, 178

179 , -,,.. -, - (,, ). -, -, -, -., -. [95] -, icr iest, (5.8) n i est, (, ); i cr, - ; n, 1,25; 1,20; 1,15 1,10 - I, II, III, IV. - (5.8) vest, m vcr, j vest, j, (5.9) n j n v est, j v est, m ; n j ; v cr, j [95]..,..., - c u 15 20, c u ,8 1,0, ( ) - (d < 1 ),, - ( = 0,45) I,, / 3, w,.. 0,04 1,60 0,15 0,32 0,09 1,59 0,165 0,30 0,25 1,26 0,31 0,24, -, w = w + w c, w c = 0,02 0,03,. 179

180 [34], - sw > 0, , (, - ) - ( ), - (,, ).,, -. (, - ) 1,5 2 [111]. : ( ) sw ; (w sw ); (p sw ) [111]. (v sw ) - (t sw ) [50]., ( sw ), -, (h), () w; %,..: sw = h / h 0 (5.10) sw sw,,, 0,006 (0,06 / 2 ). [34], - (. 2.3) ( sw < 0,04) ( sw > 0,12). (w sw ), ( ); %., -. (p sw ), -., - sw = 0;. (v sw ) sw /t -. sw (t sw ), - ; - [50]. -.., ( ). 180

181 [32]. - - (). -., ,5 3,0. -, - 5.,,.,, -. - ( ). (,. 5.9) :,, - ( - ), - 10,,,,. : ; ;, -, -, - 0,0006., -, , , -, , 10, 30, 60, 2 -, -.., 0, , ()

182 :, ( ), -. ( ) : (h),, (n i ) (n 0 ) ; sw 0,001, h., -.., :.,, -. -, - () - [50].,,, -,. -, -,.,, - ( - ),,... c -,, ,,., : > > -.. : Li + > Na + > NH 4 + > K + > Mg 2+ > Ca 2+ > Al 3+ > Fe 3+.,,,. ( ), - [50]. 182

183 -,. -, [127], % (< 1 ), % PI,.. w sh,.. >30 >28 >35 < <15 <15 <18 >15.,. -,., - (w sw ),, (w L )., ( ) (, ), (). -,. -. ( 1 5 ),., -,., - ( %) (- ),,,. 60 %. ( n = 50 %) -, w p w L. -. () [50]. - : ),.,., 0, %, 1,5...1,7 / 3, 0,20...0,30, 0,28, - 0,27 0,55. -, ; 183

184 ), ; ) -, ; ),, -.,, , - ; ),,,, ; ; ),,, - ;,,,,,, -, - [96] (),,. -, () s sh,, s n sh sh, ihk i sh i1 sh,i i- ; h i i-, ; k sh, 1,3;, [92]. sh,i,, k sh = 1,2. H sh,,, 5. : ( sh ); (b sh ), (w sh ) (SL); ( sh ). ( sh ) (h) (h 0 ): sh = h / h 0, ; %,.. ( shv ) - (V) (V 0 ): shv = V / V 0, - %,.. 184,

185 (w sh ), ; %,.. (. 5.10). ( sh ), sh = b sh /(w b sh w 0 ), w - ; w 0. 1 %,,.. sh -,. [32]..,. :,, ( ). (. 5.11): ; -, ; (- ) 1 ; ; [136] : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 0,05 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 11 ; 12 ; 13 ; : [32]; [136]; 185

186 ., (. 5.11, ). - (13,6 / 3 ). [124].,. 2,5 140 (. 5.11, ).,.,, % -.., ,,,, , 5 6, -.. (105 ± 2) ( 5180). -. : : 2 di hi Vi, 4 d i,, ; h i, ; : g g w 1, g g i, ; g, ; ( shh ), ( shd ) ( shv ): h h d d V V shh ; shd ; shv, h d V h, d, V h, d, V,,,,

187 V = f (w). - (w sh ), V = f (w) (. 5.12). - (. 5.12),. -., -,. -.,, (. 5.12,, I) : ) : I ; II ; w sh ; ) : I ; II ( ); III ; IV ; V [50], - ()., -., (. 5.12,, III), -, - ( 0,1...1,0 )., (. 5.12,, IV), ( 0,1 ) -. - (. 5.12,, V), -,. -, -., -..,,.. 187

188 (S r = 1), (. 5.12). - S r., - [50].,, -,,,,.,,. : -, -, -, -,, - [50]., -,, : -,, -,.,. -, -.., -,,, - -.,,, -.,,,, -., -., -,... -,., ,,,.,,,... - (NaCl, Na 2 SO 4, MgO 4, Na 2 CO 3, CaSO 4 ),. (, ), ( ).,, -. -,. -,. 188

189 , -.. -, -. -,,.,. -,., -., , -,,,,,., -,,, [50] (.. ) -.,.,.,, : I,, 5 ; II, - 5., - sl,, - sl,, w sl,.., ( ) [30, 17]. sl hsl sl, h h sl () ; h 0 -. ( sl ) : [34], sl > 0,01, -, (. 2.3)

190 ( ), - ( ):,,,, [111]. -,,, -., - ( 1,5 ).,, (. 5.13).,.,, - 34 %. ( 80 %),,,,,, (. 5.14)., -, , (, ) ( ) [107] ,, : 5...6,. -,, ,. -., - (. 5.14).... [72]. 190

191 [72]: 1 ( 10 ), ; 2 ( 5 ), ; 3 ( ), ; 4 (3...5 ), ; 5, ; 6,, ; 7, -,, [85]: :,,,, -..,,, -., ;,,, ( ), ,,,,., ;,,,,, ,,,,,,., ; 191

192 . 20.,,,, -.., - ; -,,., ;, -, -.., -,,,,.. -,. ( 3 6 )., -. - : - ( )., -, - -. : - ; (,, - ), - ; - ( ); ; ,. -,,,,.,, ; -. : - ;, - - ( ); %, %; ; - ;. : -, -, -. - ( ). 45 %, 15 %.,. -.,,. 0, %, %, %

193 %, % %. -,. (0,05...0,01 ) (0,01...0,002 ) - 1,5...2,. -, ( 40 %) (1,8...1,9 / 3 ). -. ( /), 10 3 / (1 /). - /, /., -,., -, -, ( 0,5...1 ), -.,, - [85]., -,, (- ), - ( )., %,, (CaCO 3 ), % (, ). -, - 0,01...0,25., -. (),,., -, (SiO 2 ). : (- 0,05...0, % 0,005,, %); ( 12); ( 1,5 / 3 ); - ( 45 %); (, ); ; ( ); ; ,. - [107] %. - : -,,., 0,05...0,5...,.,,. [107]. 193

194 -., - 0,008 0,05. -, -, ,008. () - -, «-». -, -. -., - -, - [107].. - K a.. : K a = S < 5 / S < 5, S < 5 < 5 ; S < 5,. K a :, (K a = 1 1,2); - (K a = 1,3 2); - 1 (K a = 2 20); 2 (K a > 20).,.. K a 1,3, ,,,., , - -.,,. -,.. 194

195 ...., -, -., ,,, ( ), - [85].,, - ( ) () -. :,, , -.,, -,,.,,, -, -,., -.,, -,. -,, -. -, - -, -,. - [107]. 195

196 6.,, -. -,, -,,,. -,, -,., -,. 6.1.,, : (); (); (T bf ); () (L v ); (); ( t ); (K )..., 1, /( ) ( /, / )., /( 3 ), /( 3 ),, 1.. -, 1 ( ), -,. -, ,, ,,. -, ; -, -. -, ( 0,49, 1,0). - -, 0,

197 ; -,, -. : 1 0,1 %, 0,07 % [57]., -. -, /( ), /( ), -,.,, ,, ,.,, , 1., -,,,,,. -,., 2 5 /( ),... - Si 2 :,. - 2,0...3,6 /( ). Si 2., - 0,8 7,4 /( ):, -. - : ; - ;. - -, 1,5 4,5 /( ).,,,

198 , 0,8...2,2 /( ),,., - (, ), (0,8...1,7 /( ),.,,, - 7,2...11,9 3,7...5,8 /( ) 5,7 /( ) 2,6 /( ). : -., -,,.,, , -,.,,,,., (0,023 /( ) (0,57 /( )) (2,29 /( ).,, -,,..,., :, - [57]. -. ( th f ), (C th C f ) -,, ( d ) [104]. T bf,,.,. -, - () ( ) º. - T bf 0.,,..,

199 d, / 3 [104] w tot,.. 6.1, /( ), [/( )],, - /( 3 )10 6, [/( 3 )] th f th f th f th f th f 0,1 9,00 0,1 6,00 0,1 4,00 0,1 2,00 0,2 4,00 0,2 2,00 0,3 3,00 0,3 2,00 0,4 2,00 0,7 1,00 1,0 0,60 1,2 0,40 1,4 0,35 1,4 0,30 1,4 0,25 1,91 2,14 (1,65) (1,85) 1,4 0,20 1,57 1,86 (1,35) (1,60) 1,4 0,15 1,39 1,62 (1,20) (1,40) 1,4 0,10 1,10 1,27 (0,95) (1,10) 1,4 0,05 0,75 0,81 (0,65) (0,70) 1,6 0,30 1,6 0,25 1,6 0,20 1,6 0,15 1,6 0,10 1,6 0,05 1,8 0,20 1,8 0,15 1,8 0,10 1,8 0,05 2,0 0,10 2,0 0,05 2,50 (2,15) 2,15 (1,85) 1,80 (1,55) 1,45 (1,25) 1,05 (0,90) 2,67 (2,30) 2,26 (1,95) 1,97 (1,70) 1,45 (1,25) 2,73 (2,35) 2,10 (1,80) 2,73 (2,35) 2,37 (2,05) 2,00 (1,75) 1,62 (1,40) 1,10 (0,95) 2,84 (2,45) 2,62 (2,25) 2,20 (1,90) 1,51 (1,30) 2,90 (2,50) 2,14 (1,85) 1,80 (1,55) 1,74 (1,50) 1,57 (1,35) 1,33 (1,15) 1,10 (0,95) 0,93 (0,80) 0,64 (0,55) 1,86 (1,60) 1,80 (1,55) 1,62 (1,40) 1,45 (1,25) 1,62 (1,00) 0,81 (0,70) 1,86 (1,60) 1,68 (1,45) 1,45 (1,25) 0,99 (0,85) 1,74 (1,50) 2,10 (1,80) 2,10 (1,80) 2,00 (1,75) 1,90 (1,65) 1,86 (1,60) 1,80 (1,55) 1,68 (1,45) 1,51 (1,30) 1,27 (1,10) 1,05 (0,90) 0,70 (0,60) 1,97 (1,70) 1,91 (1,65) 1,74 (1,50) 1,57 (1,35) 1,28 (1,10) 0,87 (0,75) 1,97 (1,70) 1,80 (1,55) 1,57 (1,35) 0,99 (0,85) 1,86 (1,60) 1,57 (1,35) 1,57 (1,35) 1,45 (1,25) 1,33 (1,45) 1,10 (0,95) 0,87 (0,75) 0,70 (0,60) 0,46 (0,40) 1,68 (1,45) 1,51 (1,30) 1,33 (1,15) 1,10 (0,95) 0,87 (0,75) 0,58 (0,50) 1,57 (1,35) 1,39 (1,20) 1,05 (0,90) 0,70 (0,60) 1,28 (1,10) 2,10 (1,80) 2,00 (1,75) 1,90 (1,65) 1,80 (1,55) 1,66 (1,45) 1,57 (1,35) 1,51 (1,30) 1,22 (1,05) 0,99 (0,85) 0,75 (0,65) 0,52 (0,45) 1,86 (1,55) 1,68 (1,45) 1,51 (1,30) 1,22 (1,05) 0,93 (0,80) 0,64 (0,55) 1,80 (1,55) 1,57 (1,35) 1,22 (1,05) 0,75 (0,65) 1,39 (1,20) 0,81 (0,70) 0,40 (0,35) 0,23 (0,20) 0,12 (0,10) 0,81 (0,70) 0,23 (0,20) 0,93 (0,80) 0,41 (0,35) 0,93 (0,80) 1,34 (1,15) 0,70 (0,60) 0,41 (0,35) 0,23 (0,20) 1,33 (1,15) 0,52 (0,45) 1,39 (1,20) 0,70 (0,60) 1,39 (1,20) 4,00 (950) 2,73 (650) 1,88 (450) 1,05 (250) 3,78 (900) 2,10 (500) 4,15 (990) 3,32 (750) 3,78 (900) 3,60 (855) 3,44 (820) 3,11 (740) 3,35 (800) 3,02 (720) 2,78 (660) 2,48 (590) 2,18 (520) 1,89 (450) 1,60 (380) 1,84 (835) 3,15 (750) 2,31 (670) 2,48 (590) 2,16 (515) 1,83 (435) 3,17 (755) 2,78 (600) 2,42 (575) 2,04 (485) 2,68 (640) 2,26 (540) 2,31 (550) 1,68 (400) 1,26 (300) 0,64 (200) 2,40 (570) 1,47 (350) 2,40 (570) 2,10 (500) 2,73 (650) 2,10 (500) 2,18 (520) 2,12 (505) 2,35 (560) 2,18 (520) 2,06 (490) 1,89 (450) 1,76 (420) 1,74 (415) 1,47 (350) 2,48 (590) 2,35 (560) 2,14 (510) 2,02 (480) 1,80 (430) 1,68 (400) 2,41 (575) 2,26 (540) 2,04 (485) 1,89 (450) 2,26 (540) 2,10 (500) 199

200 . -, ,. T bf ps,.., Ds c ps, Ds wtot D s,..; w tot, [104] T bf,, c ps,.. 0 0,005 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0 0,6 0,8 1,6 2,2 2,8 -: 0,1 0,6 0,9 1,7 2,3 2,9 0,2 0,6 1,1 1,8 2,5 3,2, - - ( t ) ( t ), 1, -. t = 3 t. -,, - -,. ( -,,, ), -.,, (2...12) , -. t ( ) ,, -. t, -, (7,5...18) ,. -, , ( ), - 25 % 5 %,

201 . -,. - -, -. -,,, ,.,,,. -,, -.,,. -, () L v, / 3 (/ 3, / 3 ),, ( ). L L v = L 0 (w tot w w ) d, L 0 = 93 / (80 /) ; d, / 3 [104]. -,, (,.). -, 2 /, : = /.,, -, ,,,.. - :,,, -.,, -, -., -. -,,, -,

202 . -,. - : ( f ) (h f ) ; (p f ),, ; (),, ; ( th ); ( th ) ; (c th )., - : - - ; - ; - - ; - -. (. 2.3) - f (: f, -,, ),, [39],,. fr 0,01 f = h f / d i, h f, ; d i -,. f %,. [39] - -, ( - 10 % ), ( 0,05 2 % ), ,

203 ,.,, 100 (150 ± 5)., ,, , -. (, )., -, (. 6.1) :, - (,,, -..); (, -,,. ); (,..); ;, - (, -, ); : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 - ; 6 ; 7 - ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 11 ; 12 ; : [140]; [39]

204 : (4 ± 0,2) - 1 0, (1 ± 0,2) ; -, -,,, 0,05 ; 0,8 2 /. - () : 0,1 ; 0,2. (, ) ,, , ,, - - : - ; ; - ; - ;,, ;. (1 ± 0,5). -, ,, - ( - ) [101] (. 6.2). 204

205 , -, I p 2 D. D < 1, D 1. - D 1 5 (1 < D < 5). D -,. - D,... D k D, d 2 0 e k, 1, ; e ; d 0,, 1 p1 p2 p i d0..., d 1 d2 di d i, ; i -,.. [101]., 1,4. -, 1,4. - [34], III - f (%) R f [10]. 6.3 [10] f < 1,0-1,0 f 3,5-3,5 < f 7,0-7,0 < f 10,0 f > 10,0 R f 2 < I < 7 0,0014 0, ,0049 0, ,0098 0, ,0169 0, < I 7 0,0009 0, ,003 0, ,006 0, ,0103 0, < I < I7 0,001 0, ,0035 0, ,0071 0, ,0122 0, < I 13 0,0008 0, ,0027 0, ,0054 0, ,0093 0, < I 17 0,0007 0, ,0023 0, ,0046 0, ,0079 0,0079 I > 17 0,0012 0, ,0043 0, ,0086 0, ,0147 0,0147 R f, [10] 2 ww ( wcr ) Rf 0,012 ( w0,1), wl wp M0 (6.1) w, w p, w L, -,,..; w cr -,,..,. 6.3; M 0 -, ( ). 205

206 w cr I p w L [10] R f (6.1), 1,5 / 3 ; R f d / 1,5, d, / 3. (, - ), -, -. - (,, ) S r > 0,9,, -.,,, -, - ; -., [117], - ( ) f = (w( d / w ) ), (6.2) w,..; d = / (1 ) - (), / 3 ; w,, w = 1000 / 3 ;, ;,. 6.4, I p w L., -, f = (w( d / w ) ), (6.3), ;, -, 1 (. 6.4). 206

207 f = (w( d / w ) ),,, = (z max d ws ) / (z + d ws ), z,, z max, (z z max ),. 6.5; d ws,, 0,30.,, f = (w( d / w ) ). - f = 0,09S r e( d / s ), s, / 3 ; S r = w s / e w,..; e = ( s d ) / d,.. 6.4,, [117] 2 < I p 7 2 < I p 7 7 < I p 17 7 < I p < I p 17 I p > 17 w L,.. 0,15 0,216 0,025 0,028 0,25 0,174 0,037 0,029 0,33 0,155 0,043 0,030 0,15 0,302 0,041 0,034 0,25 0,245 0,058 0,035 0,33 0,228 0,071 0,036 0,20 0,310 0,048 0,050 0,30 0,242 0,054 0,052 0,40 0,202 0,056 0,054 0,50 0,168 0,058 0,056 0,20 0,268 0,029 0,056 0,30 0,237 0,046 0,058 0,40 0,224 0,062 0,060 0,50 0,206 0,070 0,062 0,20 0,234 0,015 0,059 0,30 0,199 0,026 0,061 0,40 0,189 0,039 0,064 0,50 0,184 0,050 0,068 0,25 0,176 0,017 0,050 0,35 0,149 0,021 0,052 0,45 0,141 0,029 0,054 0,55 0,134 0,035 0,056 0,65 0,131 0,040 0,058 0,

208 f = 0,09S r e( d / s ). d ws 0,4. ( ) - f f = f d f, f, -,..; d f,. 6.5 z max z max, 3,5 2,5 I p > 0,13 2,5 I p > 0,13 2,0 I p 0,13 2,0 I p 0,13 1,8 I p > 0,02 1,5 I p > 0,02 1,3 I p 0,02, 1,0 0,8 - ( ) f f = f h f, f, - (6.3) - h f., - p fmax = (w( d / w ) /, p fmax, ;. p fmax = 0,09S r e( d / s ) /,, 0,042, 0,049 [117] ,. -,,

209 7. -, -., -,, - -,. 7.1., -,... - ( ),,.. -,,,,, /, (/ 3 ) (/1000 ). () - () - [50]. -,,,,,, - (,,, ),,,,. -., - (), e- [111] : 40 % 30 % 30 % % : NaCl, KCl, CaCl 2, MgCl 2 ; - : NaHCO 3, Ca(HCO 3 ), Mg(HCO 3 ); Na 2 CO 3 ; MgSO 4, Na 2 SO 4. CaS 4 2HO 2 CaSO 4.,,,, -, (-,.).,,,,

210 :,, -,,, (1...3 ). -,, -,. - :, ; ;, (-,, );, -,.., -,,, -. [111]: (q sr ); (D sal ); (h sf ); ( sf ); (p sf ); (). q sr, /,, q sr, / q sr 0,01 0,01 < q sr 1 1 < q sr < q sr 100 q sr > 100 D sal, %,. D sal. 7.3 [113].. h sf,, - -, -. sf. p sf,,,. 210

211 [34] D sal, % (, ),, <0,5 <0,5 D sal 5 D sal 5 D sal 3 0,5 D sal < 2,0 0,5 D sal < 1,0 5 < D sal 10 5 < D sal 10 3 < D sal 7 2,0 D sal < 5,0 1,0 D sal < 3,0 10 < D sal < D sal 20 7 < D sal 10 5,0 D sal 10,0 3,0 D sal 8,0 20 < D sal < D sal < D sal 15 D sal >10,0 D sal > 8,0 D sal > 35 D sal > 30 D sal > 15 (h sf, sf, p sf ) - ( ), sf p sf. ( g = 1) , -.. ( ), ( - l SO 4 2 ). (1:5) -, CO 2 ( -, 1:10). 5,. -, CO 3 2, 3, l, SO 4 2, Ca 2+, Mg 2+, Na +, K , 0,25, 2,5. (1:1) ,2 ( 1:50), (250 ). (0,2 ) Ca 2+ SO , -, - -.

212 : 26423, 26424, 26425, 26426, 26428, (, ):,, ,. - -.,, -. -, / ; 20 ; 20 [43]. -.,, -., -,,,. -,, -..,, : - - : ; ; -, - ; ( - ); 212

213 ,,, [118]. -, - () [109] (, -,,, ;, ;..)., -,. -, [105], f 0,1 /, W4 W6 W8 W10 W12 - HCO 3,. 0 1,05 -/ 3. 5,0 6,5. 4,0 5,0. 3,5 4,0. 3,0 3,5.2,5. 4,0 5,0. 3,5 4,0. 3,0 3,5 3,0. 0 4,0. 0 3,5. 0 3,0. 0 2, , / , / 3, Mg , / 3, NH / 3, N + + K / W4 W6. -

214 0,25. -,, -. (- ) ( ), -,, 3, ( 3 ) [43] ( ), 1 SO 4 3 S 65 %, 3-7 %, C 3 A + C 4 AF 22 % l, ,.,,,. -, -,. -,. -. 3, CaSO 4 H 2 O Ca(NO 3 ) 2..,. :,,, - [50] , 3 3 () (),.

215 . 2+, S 4 2, l, N +, () 2. -, 3, 2, 2.,, - 3, 0,4...1,5 -., -, Na ,4 9,9. NaCl ,2 9,6. 2. g 2+., (, ) -,,, -,. - Mg /. 3. S 4 2 S 4 2 2, (, ), 2,5. () 2,, (,.). SO 4 ( - SO /, 250 / - ) () 2 3, , 2, -, [50]. 5..,,, +. -, -. - ( ) (- ) +. ( ) +,. ( ) - - 1:2,5. ( 2 ). 215

216 +,. - H +., -.,,. ( = 14 ).,,.. -,,,,. < 6 ( -, 3 ); < 6,7; < 5.,, -, -,,,. 3,0 3,5 8,0 9,5., = 2,8 4,0, 8,5, 8 9., - : 4,5 7,0, 7 8.,,, -,.. :. -, -., -,,. -,., 3,0 3,5 [50]., -,. -, , -,,,,,.. -, 216

217 ,.. -, : (/) () ; ( 1 ); - ;, 22 (- ); (),. [1]. ( ) (): = + +., -, ( - ), -. ( , ). - - : , ( 1000 / 10 5 ). () - ( + ) /. -, 50 1,2, ( (-)). :, ( + ) / > 50;, 20 > ( + ) / < 50; ( + ) / < 20 [1]. 217

218 , -, (). - 25, 1 3..,, -,, -,., -,,.. [78]. : 1), ; 2), - ; 3), -., - - ( - ),,,, -., -, 1 2+ SO - 4,. ( /) [105], / , «-. 50 / «218

219 , ,, -., -, -, [78]. : Fe + mh 2 O Fe 2+ mh 2 O + 2e. : O 2 + 2H 2 O + 4e 4OH Fe 2 + OH, -, : Fe OH Fe(OH) 2, 2Fe(OH) 2 Fe 2 O 3 + H 2 O. -, , -., -,. - : ; ; - -, (). -, -.,,.. :,, -,,,, -..,., %

220 ,. ( ).. -. Cl, NO 3, SO 4 2, 3, 2+, Mg 2+, Na ( = 3 9) ( = 3 5), ( = 6 8) ( = 9 10) : 1 ; 2 [78],,. - -,,. -,, - : MgS 4 + 4H = Mg(OH) 2 + H 2 S ,,,., , [78] :,., [45]: ; ,. 7.7,, / , ,05 0, ,20 220

221 , [45]. 7.8, % - () - 6,5 7,5. 0,01. 0, ,0 6,5. 7,5 9,0. 0,01 0,02. 0,0001 0,001. 5,0. 9,0. 0,02. 0, , / 3, -/ - () 6,5 7,5.. 5, ,0 6,5. 5,3 3, ,5 9,0. 5,0 3, ,0 7.10, % - - 6,0 7,5. 0,001. 0,002. 4,5 6,0. 7,5 8,5. 0,001 0,005. 0,002 0,01. 4,5. 8,5. 0,005. 0, , / 3-6,0 7,5. 5, ,5 6,0. 7,5 8,5. 5, , ,5. 8, , - -,

222 [105], , -. - (), ,., , -., 1.,. -, -, 0,5...1,

223 105, - 0, ,, -, ,,.,..,., : ; ;,, ;. - [100]. - : NaCl + AgNO 3 = AgCl + NaNO 3 ; 2 ro 4 + AgNO 3 = 2Ag 2 CrO 4 + 2NO 2. -, -. : 100, 500, 1000 ; 250 ; ; ; (AgNO 3 ),.. ( :.. - ) 50 ; (NaCl),.. 50 ; ( 2 ro 4 ),... ( :... ) 100 ; 0,l ; (H 2 SO 4 ), d 20 1,84,.. 0,003 ; (NHO 3 ), d 20 1,51,.. 0,5 ; ,1. 0,1 - l7-0,01. 0, , , , , ,01, 1 10%

224 . - AgNO3 = 1 V 1 / V, V,, ; V 1, 1 -,. 0, , , , (d 20 1,51) (1:2).. 10%-.,, , , (. 7.13) , 0, %-. 0, , () ( ) 10 - (l ) Cl = Va 35,5 10 / V 1 m = V 17,75 / V 1. - (l ) / Cl = V 35, / V 1, V,, ; - ; V 1,, ; a, ; m, -, ; 35, ( C 10 H 14 N 2 Na 2 O 8 2H 2 O) -.,,.,,. MnO(OH) 2, -,., %- (Na 2 S 9H 2 ). 224

225 1%-. : ; ; ; (MgSO 4 ),... 2 ; ( 3 ),.. 4 ; (NH 4 Cl), ; 25%- (NH 4 OH),... 1,3 ; (NCl), ; ( -00),. 4,, -; (HCl), d 20 1,19,.. 0,02 ;, ; - (Na 2 S 9H 2 O), ; (NH 2 OH HCl);... 3 ; ,1 3:1. 3,0090 ( ) ,0050 -, 10 - (1:1).. 0, ,1 25 0,1,.. 0, ,05.. 9,31, ,05 +2 Mg +2, ,1,,. () : = 1 V 1 /V, 1 ; V 1,, ; V,,.. 50, % %-. 1% = 10, ,1-00,. 225

226 ( +2 ) (Mg +2 ) , Mg +2 +2, Mg ,05 -,.,,. (X ) X = V / V, V 1,, ; V -, ; 1. (100 ) 0,01.. [100]. - 3 Fe m nscn [Fe( SCN)]. n n. -, -.. : ; ; p;, ; ;, ; - (Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 24H 2 O),.. 60 ; (NH 4 SON), ; (KSON); (HNO 3 ), d 20 1,51,.. 0,5 ; (H 2 SO 4 ), d 20 1,84,.. 0,7 ; (NH 4 ) 2 S 2 O 8, ; (l), d 20 1,19; ; ( 3 [F(N) 6 ]) : 0,8640.., - Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 24H 2 O, l. : , %-.. < ,1 10, 0,01 1, 26. Bo 1 (1:1) 6 10%- -,.

227 , l (1:1), 6 10%-, ( ; ). Fe +3 Fe , 1 (1:1) -, 10, %-,..,. (Fe + ) Fe +3 = a 500 / V 1000 = a / 2V, a,, ( c - ); V,, ; 600 -,. [100]., - : MnO e Mn O. -. MnO 4, MnO 4 : nO = 2n H 2 O + 10CO 2. : - ; ; ; ; ; ; (KMnO 4 ), ; - ( ), ; (H 2 SO 4 ), d 20 1,84,.. 1 ; 100, ,, -, KMnO 4,,. 25%-. 0,05. 0, ,60,. 227

228 MnO H 2 SO 4 (1:3), 1 0,05, - 0,05 no ,05 0,05 KMnO 4 -. () no 4 - no4 = V 1 / V 1, V no 4,, ; V 1, ; 1. 0,05 3,15.. H 2 C 2 O 4 2H 2 O ,5, %- H 2 SO 4 0,05 no 4 -, 1. - :, -,. 10 0,05 no 4 0,2, - 10,.,. - (, ). 10 0, O 4,. 0,05 no : no 4 no 4, -. () ( /) [( + a 1 ) 1 b 2 ] 3 1, / V 1. () ( %) [a a 1 ) 1 b 2 ] V 0,003 1, / V 1 m, no 4,, ; a 1 -,, ; no 4,, ; b H 2 C 2 O 4, no 4, ; 1 no 4 ; O 4 ; V, ; V 1, -, ; m,, ; 1,724 ; 0,

229 - [100]. -, : 3HNO 3 + C 6 H 3 OH(HSO 3 ) 2 = C 6 H 2 OH(NO 2 ) 3 + 2H 2 SO 4 + H 2 O C 6 H 2 OH(NO 2 ) 3 + KOH = C 6 H 2 (NO 2 ) 3 OK + H 2 O : 50 ; ; ; ; ; ; ( ); - ; ; (C 6 H 5 OH),.. 130, - (H 2 SO 4 ), d 20 1,84,.. 1 ; 25%- (NH 4 OH),... 10, ; (KNO 3 ),.. 4 ; (Ag 2 SO 4 ),.. 14 ; (l 2 (SO 4 ) ), ; (), ; 1 ; , %- 20%- -.. : 0,163-1, - (1 0,1 N 3 ). : ; 1 0,01 NO 3.. 4,4, -, Al 2 (SO 4 ) O %-.,, 1 0,8 -., 7%- (3:2).,. -. -,, ( )

230 . 1 -, %- 10%-., l = 410, «-». ( - ; - 50 ). -, -,.. - (NO 3 ) ( %) N 3 = 100 / m NO 3 = a / (2V). - (NO 3 ) ( /) NO 3 = a 1000 / V 1, -, ( - ), ; m, -,, ; V,, ; V 1,, [100] , -. () [45]. - - (. 7.3)., -72, : 1 ; 2 : I ; ;. 7.3.,, 230

231 , , -. 1/20.,, = 2R., R.,, ;, ( ),. [45]. -,,, ,5 0,7 -. 1,5 2, 3.,,., , -. -, 1, , 1, = 100 ; b = 45 ; h = 45 (. 7.4, ) (,, ). : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4,, h; ; N : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 :,, D ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; : ; 231

232 ,.,,., ,. 4., S p l 1 - V 1 l MN. R.,, R. = V 1 / l 1, V 1, ; l 1,. V , : R. = (V 1 V 01 ) / l 1.,, : = S p R. / l MN, R., ; S p, 2, l MN,. - - (. 7.5),, [141]. - -, , -,, ;

233 , -, 130, i. [45]. -, : ; , 1,5; 1 1 ; ; (,, -..) 0,5 1 3 ;, - 1,5 2, (0,001 2 ); ;,,..;. -,.,.,. - -, (- ), , 1,0...1,5., l. -,. 7.4,,, ,, , - 1 -,. l. l -, 15, - - l t., l ( ) l. i. 233

234 i,, i = l. / 0,001, l., ; 0,001, ,.,,. -,,,,.,,, - ( ).. (. 7.6). -,.,.,.,,,. : 1 ; 2 ; [77],,.,..,.,,, ; -,, -,

235 -,,.,,,... -, -,. -,. [78]. [45]. : 1 : 0,5 0 0,5 ; 1,0 0 1,0 ; 5,0 0 5,0,, -. -, ( ) 0,040 - ( ) - 0,040 ( - ),. [45]. -. : - 1, -,. -,, ( ). -, -.,. -, - 0,5, - -, ( 0,04 ).,,,. - 0,

236 , - : 0,70 ; 0,4 ; 0,70. U,, - U = U U, U - -, ; U -,., - - ( ), 0,04, , -,,.. -,.,,. -,.,, -,. ( = 0 6).,, 10 %. = = 5 9, -,. -., -,. [78]. [45] - : (,,, );,. [45]., , 1:3 ( 1,47 / 3 ). (,, - ). 236

237 8. - -, -,., - (),.. -.,. -,, -,. :,,.. ;,, -, ( ) ( - ). : -, ; -, - [50]. 8.1.,, -,. ( -,..),. (q) - () (S): q = / S. -., ; -, -. -,., -,, (S 0): q = lim / S., -. ( / ),., 1, 2, 3,, i. -,, (. 8.1, ).,, - 237

238 S,, P. q = P / S, - q S 0,.. q = lim(p / S), (1 = 1 / 2 = 10 1 / 2 ) : ( 1, 2, 3 ) P S; [50] q, S, q 2 = (, P z, x) q 2 = 2 + y 2 + z 2, y z, z, Z Y., S, (), ().,.,,. - ( ), ( x, y z ) ( xy = yx, yz = zy, zx = xz ) (. 8.1, ). ( x, y z ) ( xy = yx, yz = zy, zx = xz ) -., ( v = y = z = x ), ( v ). -..,... -,. - (), (); - (),, (). ( - ), ( - ) (, ).,..,,...,,

239 (),, (l), (l 0 ): = l / l 0, l = l 0 l ( %,. ). (),.., (. 8.2, ): = l / h = tg. ( v ), (. 8.2, ): v = V / V = x + y + z, V -, V. -, : ; ; [50], :,.. - ;,,.. ;, -. -,.. = f(), = f().,, -,.,, - : = ; = G; v = K v, ( ), ; G, ; K,. z -,. ( z ) ( x ),. 8.3, a. ( '), - z = z, x = x., ( '),, -.. -, (. 8.3, ). 239

240 () (. 8.3, ): = +, (. 8.3,, 0);, -, ( );,, - ( 0). () ( v ) - : = + ; v = v + v. - (. 8.1, ).. : ; () ;.. : - () - ; (,,.); ; -, -. -,, : ; [50], ( - ) [50]., - ( ), , -, (. 8.4, ).,..,. (), - () ;, - ( ).. - :, - ; 240

241 , - ;,, ;.,. - (. 8.4, ). u,, - '., ( u), , :, ;,,.,,, -. -.,, - : ('),, -, - ; (u),.. -,,, -.. -,. -,,,.,, -, [75]. 241

242 , z - : : zg = h, -, / 3, h z, ; : xg = yg = zg, - ; u z ; : zg = zg + u z ; xg = yg = zg + u z.,,. 1g -.. g -, -. g = 1g (1 + 2) / 3,.,, (pressure), -., -, (s). s,, zg, () -, : zg = zg. - : n ( ) n zp, i zg, i hi zg, ihi s, (8.2) i1 E i1 E i, 0,8; zp,i ( ) i-,, ; h i - i-,, 0,4 ; E i - i-, ; zg,i i-, -,,, ; E e,i i-, -, ;,., 5, (8.2), - [114]. z = H c, zp = 0,5 zg. H min, b/2 b 10, (4 + 0,1b) 10 b b > 60., - e, i 242

243 , > 100,. 7 z =,,,, zp = 0,2 zg. - - n s0,001 Es H, 1 n ; ; s,,. ( - > 100 ). (8.2) : 0,30...0,35 ; 0,35...0,37 ; 0,2...0,3 I l < 0; 0,3...0,38 0 I l 0,25; 0,38...0,45 0,25 I l 1, , : xg zg zg. 1 (-, ),, - ( ),, - [5]., -, -,,,,., -. ( S r 0,85),. 8.4.,, :. - (. 8.5),, -,. -, [5].,,, -, (u) (. 8.6).,,

244 -, R, c1 c2 R Mkb z II Md q 1 II ( Mq1) db II Mc c, (8.3) k 1 2, -, - ; k,, ( ) -, k = 1,1, - [102];, q, -, - - ; k z, - b < 10 ; k z = z 0 / b + 0,2 b 10 ( z 0 = 8 ); b, ; II, - ( ), / 3 ;. 8.5., [5] ' II,, / 3 ; II,, ; d 1 -, ; d b,,. = 8 = 12 = () [136], -, c,

245 , -., ( S r 0,85) -,, - c -, = ( u) tg + c,,. - (u = ), ( = c). - c - - c = c u. : N ; M ; H ; PSC ; PSE ( ); DSS ; TC ; TE ; CC : ) ; ) ; ) ; ) ; ) [5, 137] -,. (. 8.7) (DSS) (TS), () ()., -, - ( 0 + )., [5]. 245

246 8.2., -,,,.. (. «rheos» ) -. - (,.),.., - - [12]., ,..,..,..,.....,..,.,.,.. -,...,..,..,..,... :,.. ;,.., - ;,.. -. (, v ) (t) (-,, v ). ( - z x, y), -. (), -,. = f(, t) = f(). ( v ),.,. - -, -, [50]. -. d d (v),, - dt dt d v. dt, (. 8.8, ). 246

247 :,, [50] -,, -. ( - ) / 2, () 1 = 0,1 / 2, / c.,, : j = 1/. = /,. 2 /, - (1 = /). () = (dt/d). -.,, -, (. 8.9,, 1) , (. 8.9,, - 2) [12]: I ( 0' n); II - ( ); III, ( m f). - - ; [12]: t; ;

248 ; -. - : I II t n v n, II III - t m v m f,, t f. t m, III -. t n,. t f -., -. (,.) (. 8.8, ),. - ( 0 ) ( m ), (. 8.8, ) 0 m, -.,, -, -, -, (. 8.8, ). < 1 - ; > 1 - ; > m (. 8.8, ) ().. -, , (-),, - -, -. «-»,. -., -. -, -.,, -,., (I) -. -,, [12]. 248

249 ,.,,..,. -,,. : -, %, <<. - - [71]: ; G ; ( 1 )(1 2) v s v (. 8.9).,, -,, -., : 0, -, s,, m, - :,,. 0,,. 0 = /, = / (. 8.3, )., 0 <, > :, ; ;, u (. 8.10) 0, (8.4) : (. 8.10, ),, % ;

250 (. 8.10, ), -, ; (. 8.10, ),., -.,, -. -,. 0,,. -,,. s, /,, -, h i s , h 1 h i ; h ;..,, : = ,, -., -, (8.4). G K: 9 GK G(3 2 G),, E 2 G(1 ). 3K G 1G,,.,... -, ( ),, ( ) [58]: 1,5...1,55., ( - ),, ( ). ( ) ( ) ( z ), ( -, x y ). - = / z. (8.5) 250

251 , - (8.5) -, G,, : E 2G 3 2G,,. 2G 2( G) 2(3 G) 1 +0,5, ,5, 0. 0,5, ( x = y = z ),. -.,. - xg zg.. () - ( 2 = 3 ) ( 1 ): = 2 / 1. -, 1g,, - p str., 2 = 3 [94]: :. 1 1,, 2 = 3 = 0. G,,, (. 8.2, ).,,. [79]: E G. (8.6) 2(1 ) ( - ) , -. ( ) G max,., 50 %, - G 50, 251 1

252 ,. - G f [79]: ; - - G max., - - G max ,, G max - - [79]. - - : v = v. : GE 2 (1 ), G 9G 3E 3(1 2), E 2 G. 3(1 2 ) 3 [125]:, -,,, ;, - ;, ;., - - (. 8.1) - [114]. - -.,

253 ,, I L > 0,5, - [17] E, (- - ) E, m, 1/ - m r, 1/ p str,, - [17] - - v, 2 /, 2 / : 8.1 [30] sl slp p sl, : [17] sw swp p sw, :, -, ( ) [17] - sf - sfp - p sf, [17] - - E, v, 2 / G, -, () 50 50, : ( ), [17] - - E, m, 1 A th 253

254 [40], I L < 0,25 [17], ( ) E, , [43]. -,, ( ),. - -, - (, ) - -. I. II III. - - I II, -. III -. ( ). - I II. III 6 [114]. ( ). I II - -. III 0, k,. 8.2, k. - 0 < I L 1, - 0,1...0,2. 254

255 k [114] 8.2 k, 0,45 0,55 0,65 0,75 0,85 0,95 1,05 4 3, , , ,5 5 4,5,, ( 12248), - - [109]. [5]. -, -. in situ, ,.., -,.. -., - (. 8.33). -,, (8.2) ,, - - ( ) [136] , [136] 255

256 - -., c - -,. -. -,, -,, (,, ).., -,,..,, (. 8.13), : p str, ; m, 1/, 1 ; 0 i, ; s, /. () -, -. : (. 8.14), -,, - ; ;. : - ; ; ; ;,, - 0, ,, 60/25 ( ),

257 : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 11 ; 12 ; 13 ; 14 ; 15 ; 16 ; 17 ; 18 ; 19 ; 20 ; 21 ; 22 ; 23 ; 24 ; [17]: ; [5]: - ( 12248); (CRS); -., 12248, 4 24,. -,, ,, [5] (CRS) - ; ; ; ; 257

258 [140]:, - (CRS), - (7 8 ). CRS-,, (ASTM D ).,, -, ( ) (. 8.15, ) CRS, : - ; - ; ( ); 0,, [140]. - (. 8.15, ) - ( x = y ).,, - : - p str, - [5] [142] (. 8.16), - -, ; - ; ; -. -,, -, ( ),. -, -.,,

259 -. ( 5 10 ) -. Rowe - (. 8.17)., - -. Row -, - (. 8.17,, ),. Rowe and Barden , -,,.. (. 8.17,, ) [136] Rowe Barden [137]: Rowe Barden ; ; Rowe, ; Rowe [17].,, ,8 3,5. (, ) 1/5.,,.. -, 1,0. 0,05 0,1 2., - : - ; ; - ;. 259

260 ,., -,.,. -, -.,, - -, , - I L. 8.5.,., -, (p str ) - 0, > 0, ,0 1,0 > 0,75 0,75 > e > 0,6 e 0,6 p 1, 0,005 0,0125 0,025 0, I L I L 1,0 1,0 > I L 0,75 0,75 > I L 0,5 0,5 > I L 0,25 I L < 0,25 p 1, 0,005 0,0125 0,025 0,05 0,1-0,1, 0,1 0,5, - 0, ,, p str - = h / h = e 0 (1 S r ) / (1 + e 0 ), h, ; h -, ; e 0 - ; S r. -, 0,05 % 0,5, (. 8.35). 260

261 1, - : ( 1 ) < 0,005 ; 0,005 < ( 1 ) < 0,01 ; ( 1 ) = 0,01 ; ( 1 ) < ( 0,01). - : -, 0,25; 0,5; 1; 2; 5; 10; 20; 30 1,. - -., -,, , ( ) - t 100.,,, - (. 8.35).,. 8.6, -, - -, 22733,. -., 5, E e,i (8.2),,.., () , i, t i, <1,2 0,02 1 1,20 1,25 0, ,26 1,35 0, >1,35 0, ,25; 0,5; 1; 2; 5; 10; 20; 30, 1,. -,,,,. 261

262 , 0 i : h,, - ; i = h i /h; i p i i = i (1 + 0 )., : i = a(lg), a,, a = /lg ( ), - : = f(), = f(), = f() w = f(),,, z, w ( ) ,, - (-,,.),, [50]. - (. 8.18, ). : i = m o, o, 1, i i+1 0,001 1 ei ei 1 m, i 1 e i e i + 1, i i + 1. m ( 1 ) - ( ),., -. : (m > 1 1 ), (m = 1,0...0,1 1 ), (m = 0,10...0,05 1 ), (m = 0,05...0,01 1 ), (m < 0,01 1 ).,,,. 0 - i,, ( ) - 0,1 : i 262

263 1 e0 Ei E0 E i, m 0 (8.4);, - ; m, ; b -, -. b : 0,8 ; 0,7 ; 0,6 0,4. (. 8.18, ) -,. -, -,.,. - -, - (. 8.18, ). p str,,, -., -,. ( ), -... : (. 8.18, ),. p str - (. 8.18, ) : (, ) ; ; - p str > 0,,,.,, p str, - p str.. p str -,. 263

264 ,., [70],,,,. -,,., 1g, -, - -. p str, -,, 2 -, p str, -. -, : h = e 0 h(1 S r ) / (1 + e 0 ), (. 8.18, ). h /h, -,. -,, -. - :..,..,.. -,..,.,..,.., (- ) ( ). -, -, ().,. ( ) - :,,. -,,. -,. - (),,. -. ().,,, - (. 8.18, ). -,. -, -,, [50]. 264

265 : ( 0 5 ); (5 < E 0 10 ); (10 < E 0 50 ); (E 0 > 50 ). I II - [109, 111], III II (,,,.).,. 8.7, -, 20 % 5 % (,.),, - S r , 5 % S r 0,8. 0 ;, I L S r,, , I L S r. 8.8,, I L S r. - 0, I L S r ,,, 0,45 0,55 0,65 0, , -, -, - - 0,,, I L 0,35 0,45 0,55 0,65 0,75 0,85 0,95 1,05 1,2 1,4 1,6 0 I L 0, I L 0, ,25 < I L 0, ,5 < I L 0, I L 0, ,25 < I L 0, ,5 < I L 0, I L 0, I L 0, ,25 < I L 0, ,5 < I L 0, I L 0, ,25 I L < I L 0, ,25 < I L 0,

266 0,, 0,05 < I r 0, I L 0,, I r, I r = 0,05 0,10 I r = 0,10 0,25 0,65 0,75 0,85 0,95 1,05 1,15 1,25 1,35 0 I L 0,25 13, , ,0 0,25 < I L 0, ,5 7, ,5 5 0,5 < I L 0,75 8,0 7 6,0 5, ,5 4 0,75 < I L ,5 4,0 3,5 3 2,5, -,, D dp, % , / 3 1,0 1,05 1,2 s, / 3 1,5 1,60 1,80 w,.. 3,0 2,2 1,7,.. 5,5 4,0 3,0, 1,1 2,0 3,0 0,24 0,28 0, , w sat,.. D dp, % > >40 14,5 12,5 11,8 10,0 11,5 7,5 5,8 s, / 3 1,62 1,56 1,49 1,40 1,58 1,51 1,5-0, 0,11 0,15 0,23 0,25 0,15 0,24 0,31 0,12 0,19 0,28 0,35 0,22 0,43 0,50 v, 2 / ,.. 0, 0,8 1,2 5,1...3,3 0,9 1,6 2,0...1,2 1,2 2,0 1,6...0,8 266

267 I om, % 3, % w,.. s, / 3,.. - 0, ( = 0,05 ) ,5 4,5 2,0...2, ,25...0, ,8...2, ,1...0,3 > ,4...1, ,03...0, ,2 3,7 2,0...2, ,4...0, ,8...2, ,25...0, ,4...1, ,1...0,25 - ( - ) ,5 1,8 2,0...2,5 1, , ,5 2,5 1,8...2, ,4...1 > ,5 3,0 1,4...1, ,3...0,5, , (d 2 ) 20 % ; R c < 0, ,,, I L 0,55 0,65 0,75 0,85 0,95 1,05 1,2 I L < I L 0, I L 0, ,25 < I L 0, ,5 < I L 0, I L 0, ,25 < I L 0, ,5 -., - 0 k be, ( ) k be 0,, 1,10,, 1,20 0,90 0, , (, ); 267

268 R c < 0, ,, ,, 0,45 0,55 0,65 0,75 0,85 1,0 1, [82]. -, %, % 90 %. 0,, E 0 k E k k L1/(0,088 0,15 I P 0,017), ; I p,..; k E, (. 8.18); k L -, (. 8.18); k,, 1,,. 8.18; k = 1,1, 0,1 / 3 ; k = 0,9, 0,1 / 3 k = 0,8, 0,2 / 3. = 1 / 2 I p (1 + I L ), 1 ; 2 ; I L. 0 '' [82]: E0 0 kek.,, -, ,, %, 1,

269 ,,,., ( - u > 3),, ; -, ( u < 3),, , k E k L, [82] I L ( 2 ), / I L 0,25 2,03 2,08 2,13 2,17 2,21 2,27 1,7 0,25 < I L 0,5 2,02 2,07 2,11 2,15 2,19 2,26 1,7 0,5 < I L 0,75 2,00 2,05 2,09 2,13 2,17 2,25 1,7 I k E L 0 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0, ,2 0,88 0,89 0,90 0,93 0,95 0, ,3 0,76 0,78 0,81 0,86 0,91 0,96 0,98 1 0,4 0,64 0,67 0,71 0,79 0,86 0,94 0,96 1 I k L L 0 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0, ,1 1 0,97 0,97 0,96 0,95 0,95 0,95 0,95 0,2 1 0,93 0,91 0,89 0,88 0,87 0,87 0,86 0,3 1 0,88 0,84 0,80 0,78 0,76 0,75 0,74 0,4 1 0,81 0,74 0,68 0,65 0,62 0,61 0,60 0,5 1 0,72 0,63 0,54 0,49 0,45 0,43 0,42 0,6 1 0,65 0,53 0,42 0,36 0,31 0,29 0,28 0,, I, % L I L 0, I L 0, ,25 < I L 0, ,5 < I L 0, I L 0, ,25 < I L 0, ,5 < I L 0, , / 3, Ma 1,4...1, ,5...1, ,5...1, ,4...1, : 1,4...1, ,6...2, ,6...2, ,6...1, ,,

270 ,,,,, s sl,,, -,,. -, [92] s sl n hk, i1 sl, i i sli, sl,i i- ; h i i- ; n, ; k sl,i, -. k sl,i b = ; b = 3 k 0, 5 1, 5( p p ) / p sl, i sl, i 0,, (/ 2 ); p sl,i - i-, (/ 2 ); 0, 100 (1 / 2 ); k sl,i 3 < b < 12. k sl = 1 h sl 15 k sl = 1,25 h sl 20 ; h sl k sl [92]. h sl : h sl = h sl, s sl,p, -, z = zp + zg = p sl ; h sl = h sl,g s sl,g,.. z g, z = sl ( z -, min > p sl ),. p sl, :, sl 0,01; -, «-»; -,. [30]. -, [30]. -,. = f() - (. 8.19), : - 0 1,n, - '; 270

271 - 1,n ; - '; - > 1,n (. 8.19). -, : c ; sl ; sl, ; w sl,.. () - : = ',,. sl h h sl sl, (8.7) h [50] h', () ; h sl () ; h 0,. sl,, [111] -,,,. w sl,.., -,. -,. : - ; ( 10 %) (, ).,, -,.,. -, ( - ), ,

272 0,2...0,4 / 2. -,, 0,03 / 3 2 % (0,02..). 0,05.., 0, , : 5, 10 30,, ,, 1 1,1. -.,,, -,. : () h i,, 0,01, ; 0,001 p i h i r, r i, -, ; h 0, h h, h - ( ), ; h -,. = f().,, - sw., sw, sl = f(),. sl - (8.7) -. sl - - = f(). sl sl = f() (. 8.20). sl - h 0 272

273 sl = f(), sl, - 0,01. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ( ) ; 4 sl ; sl : ; - 0,001, 0,1 / [30]...,..,..,..,..,..,..,..., -. -,..,,,, ( ),.. -, -,, -. -,. - : -. - S r < 0,60 0,75. S r 0,8, I ss -, [92] I ss I p I p 1 I p < I p < I p < 22 I ss 0,1 0,17 0,24 I ss el e I ss, 1 e ; L -, ( (5.4)). 273

274 - - I II - III (. 8.22) [111] w, % , sl, p, 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0 1,1 0,1 0,008 0,012 0,016 0,020 0,024 0,029 0,033 0,2 0,016 0,024 0,032 0,041 0,049 0,057 0,066 0,3 0,020 0,031 0,042 0,053 0,064 0,074 0,085 0,1 0,004 0,008 0,012 0,016 0,020 0,025 0,029 0,2 0,008 0,016 0,024 0,033 0,041 0,049 0,057 0,3 0,010 0,021 0,031 0,042 0,053 0,064 0,075 0,1 0,000 0,004 0,008 0,012 0,016 0,021 0,025 0,2 0,008 0,016 0,024 0,033 0,041 0,049 0,3 0,010 0,021 0,032 0,043 0,053 0,064 0,1 0,004 0,008 0,012 0,017 0,021 0,2 0,008 0,016 0,025 0,033 0,041 0,3 0,010 0,021 0,032 0,043 0,054 0,1 0,004 0,008 0,012 0,017 0,2 0,008 0,017 0,025 0,033 0,3 0,011 0,022 0,032 0,043 -,,. - (. 8.23). s sl [11] ,, 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4, I s sl ,02 0,01...0,02 0,02...0,04 0,03...0,05 0,06...0,18 II - 5 < s sl ,02 0,01...0,02 0,02...0,04 0,03...0,05 0,04...0,06 0,03...0,09 II - 15 < s sl 50 0,01...0,03 0,02...0,04 0,04...0,06 0,05...0,07 0,06...0,08 0,01...0,05 II - 50 < s sl 0,03...0,05 0,04...0,06 0,06...0,08 0,07...0,09 0,08...0,11 0, ,03 Fooks Best (1969.) (collaps index): I = ( e p ) / (e L e p ); Feda (1966.) : I = ((w / S r ) w p ) / I p. Feda,, 0,85, - ; Northmore, 0,22, [125].,,,, - /.,, : ) s sl,p, - h sl,p,, - ;

275 ) s sl,g, h sl,g,, p sl, ; ) s sl ; ) - ; ) ; ) [111] ,, -.. -, -. h sw h sw n i1 h k sw, i i sw, i sw,i i- ; h i i- ; n, ; k sw - : 0,8 = 0,05 0,6 = 3, - [92]. : p sw, ; w sw,..; sw ; sh. - [140], : ; ( ); ( );.. -, -. 15, 30, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 30,. ( - )., -,..., - -., 275

276 ( - )..., -,,..,. 15, 30, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, -., -,.,, - [140].. - ().,,., -. -,, ,8 3,5. (-, ) 1/5. -, 5.,,, , : ; - ; : 0,0025, - ; - 0,025 ; 0,05 ; 0,1. - 0,1...0,2. 276

277 ,,.,,. 5, 10, 30, 60, - 2,. -. (), - 0,001. 0, : ; ( ) ; (105 ± 2). sw = f()., -, -., () (. 8.21, ) sw = f() () (. 8.21, ), sw., , -,, sw : p sw ; p sw. «-»,, ( sw ). -, 0,2. 0 1,5-0,1., -, - «-», ; -., -,, - [50]. 277

278 - sw (, ) - - I II, III [111], , e sw (..), / 3 w,.. 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8 1,9 2,0 0,02 0,09 0,11 0,14 0,17 0,19 0,22 0,04 0,08 0,10 0,13 0,16 0,18 0,21 0,06 0,07 0,09 0,15 0,17 0,20 0,08 0,06 0,09 0,14 0,16 0,19 0,1 0,05 0,08 0,10 0,13 0,15 0,18 0,12 0,04 0,09 0,12 0,14 0,17 0,14 0,03 0,06 0,08 0,11 0,13 0,16 0,16 0,02 0,05 0,07 0,10 0,12 0,15 0,18 0,01 0,04 0,06 0,09 0,11 0,14 0,20 0,00 0,03 0,05 0,08 0,10 0,13 ; ; ;,..,,.. 0,04 0,02 0,14 0,21 0,06 0,05 0,16 0,25 0,08 0,09 0,18 0,29 0,10 0,13 0,20 0,33 0,12 0,17 0,22 0, , - e L (,,,. - (5.4)) [111]: L < 0,4. 1 e,, - [111]: ; ( ); - ( ); ,,, -.

279 s sf,, - [92] n ssf sf, ihi, i1 sf,i i- p, - zp zg ; h i i- ; n,., : h sf, ; sf ; p sf,. - -, -. : - ; ;. - : - ( ) ( - );,, ; ; - ;,. -. K-, (i). [30]: ( ) - - ; ( ) -, -. p -. p, - [30]. - ( p). -, 0,05 / 3,, ()., p. 279

280 . - ( p) -. ( - ) - ( ). - p, -. ( 1 ) ( ), p sf, 0,001 t = 0,1,, - t 0, ,.., % <5 0,80 0,65 0, ,85 0,70 0, ,90 0,80 0, ,95 0,90 0,85 >30 1,00 0,95 0,90-15, ( - ),,, -,. : 50, 2 3,, -,, -., -,,. m 0, E p str : (h),, ; () h, h ng,. = f () (. 8.22, ). - h ng 280

281 sw,, sw, - = f(),. (. ): 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ( ) ; 5 ; 6 sw ; 7 sf ; p sf ). (. ): 1, D > D 0 ; 2, D < D 0 ; : = f() ( ); sf = f( t ); = f() ( ) [30] sf «-» - : hsf hsat, p hsf, p sf, hng hng h sf ( ), ; h sat, p, ; h sf, p,. sf hsf h p hsf, p sf, hng hng h p,. sf sat, p w - = f(). sf = f(). sf. H p sf,, sf = f(), 281

282 p sf, 0,01 (. 8.22, ). 0,001, 0,02. - p sf t,.., (. 8.22, ), - t k i1 Dsalm0 k ; V w,, ; X - -, /; D sal ( -, - ),..; m 0,. -, - - sf = f( t ), t D sal - D 0, sal : m f D0, sal 1 (1 D1 ), m0 m f, ; D 1 -,.. [30]. I II III - sf, -, : ) w = 0,02 0,04, I L = 0,08 0,12, d = 1,2 1,6 / 3, = 0,75 1,1; ) w = 0,01 0,03, I L = 0,03 0,07, d = 1,4 1,45 / 3 ; = 0,9 1,0, sf = k 1 d 0 d n / g, k 1,,, ; d 0,. ; d -, / 3 ; g, / 3 ;,..;, 1, 1/3 [92] k 1 XV w,,. k 1, 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,1 0,86 0,70 0,52 0,43 0,2 0,95 0,90 0,83 0,76 0,3 0,97 0,95 0,90 0,85 0,1 0,08 0,15 0,30 0,46 0,2 0,15 0,27 0,50 0,84 0,3 0,45 0,60 0,80 1,10 0,4 0,85 0,96 1,07 1,30 0,5 1,08 1,15 1,22 1,38 282

283 8.28, [111], % d, / 3 k, /, sf <5 1,60...1, <0, ,55...1, , , ,45...1, ,10...0, ,40...1, ,05...0,18 >35 1,25...1, >0,18 <5 1,45...1, <0, ,40...1, ,01...0, ,35...1, ,04...0, ,35...1, ,10...0,17 >30 1,30...1, >0,17 [111],, -, : s sf - ; - -,,, ; -,., ,... -,,.,,, -..,,,., -., - - s i = s th + s p, s th, -, ; s p, -,. s th [92] n s ( A m ) h, th th, i f, i zg, i i i1 n ; A th, i,..; m f,i, 1, i-, 283

284 ; h i i-, ; zg,i - i-, (/ 2 ). () - : th m f, i zg. m f,i,.. -,,.,, : -, - - ; -, , ( 40 %)..,,,.,... [17] ( ),, - - : m f, 1 ; th ; m. - (),. H, -, R, :3,5. - 2, i i 0, :,. : (); - ;., ; ; - ; 71,4, 112,8. 284

285 , -. K,, -... K. th m -,, ,05 0,075. H () -. : h i,, ( ); f th. th m th hi hg th, hi h i, ; h g - (, -, ), ; h i ( ),. f = f() th = f(),, (. 8.23, ). m f,i, 1,, i, - p i f,i 0,001 1 : f, i m f, itg i. pi m f,i - : Ei, m f,i, 0,8. A th m - (. 8.23, ),, th p [17]. 285

286 : ;,, - :,. ( ),. -,, - -., - :, ( )..., -,. -. -,. -,.. -,, -. -, -,. -. -,. -, - [50] ( z ),.. -, - x = y = 0. - ( S r 0,85 ). 286

287 ,. - ( v ), -., -. -, : = z. -,,,.,. -, (. 8.8);,. : () (t), - ( t ) ( ), ; (t ) - ; (c v ),.,., - V a, - ( v ) ( a ) [17].. - ( z ) (s) (t) ( z ). -, -.. v -, - v a ( ) , - -. v : (- ) () (. 8.24)

288 b ( 50 % ) b, 1,15 b. t 90, - 0,90. v, 2 / ( 2 /), 2 T90h cv f T, (8.8) t90 90 ( ), 0,90, - 0,848; h ( - ),., h/2; t 90, ; f T (. 8.29) f, f T 1,3 1,15 1,0 0,9 0,8 100%- t : 100 = 90 / 0, t 100. c v c a : () t, () (. 8.25).,., (. 8.25), - 1 2, = f(lgt) [17], 100%-. = f(lgt), %-., 100%

289 , (. 8.25, 2 3). = f(lgt), -. 0,1 0,4., -, d 0., 50%-., 50%- -,, - d 0 100%- 100., 50%- -, = f(lgt). c v, 2 / ( 2 /), 2 T50h cv, (8.9) t50 T 50 ( ), 0,5, 0,197; h, ; t 50, 50%- -,. ( ) c a,, - (. 8.25): t 2 t1 c tg lg t lg t, 2 1 (8.10) (t 1 ) (t 2 ) ; t 1 t 2, (t 1 ) (t 2 ), [17]. - : -,. - ' a (8.10) = f(t),. 4- [93]: - ( - ); - ; - ; , -,., = f(lgt) = f(lgt) [93] 289

290 -,. -.,, -,.,, - = 0.,,. ( ),..,. -, -.,, -,,.,,. -,, -. -, -,, -, -. -, -,, -,,.. -,,,, -, [93]., -, -,,, (,,, ).. - (Na-,.), - [50]. 290

291 (-,,.), -. -,.. -., (.. ), -, - ( ), ( ).,,,,,... -,., ( ),, - -. (,, ), -,., -., W.-F. Chen, -.,, Lade, Duncan. -, -, Drucker Prager, P. Lade,... - W.-F. Chen (1984.),,. 6,.,. -, - (Prevost, 1977, 1985; Dafalias, 1985)., - [5]. -, () -,.,. -, - 1, 2, 3, 1 > 2 > 3. (. 8.27): ( 1 > 0, > 0,. 8.27, ); ( 1 < 0, 2 = 3 = 0,. 8.27, ); ( 1 > 0, 2 = 3 = 0,. 8.27, ); ( 2 = 3 1 > 0, (,, ). 291

292 : (); (); (); : (); () () [5] ( - ) :,,,,. -, -, I L > 0,5, -, -, - ( u ). II III -. II -,. -, ( ). I II - -,. - [114]. - c u - -, ( ASTM D2573, NEN ). ( 12248), 292

293 [109]. - (. 8.28, ), (. 8.28, ), - - (. 8.28, ) - (. 8.28,, ). :,,,. 8.30, c I L 0,25 R c, [17, 36] u, ( ), -,,. [17],,. [17], - -,, -, - u, [17], - : ( ), R f, R sf, R sh,i, [17] :, - - eq, [17] : ( ), - R c, [17] - - R oc, :, -,,., [47] ( 5 ) R c, - - [22] ( ) R c, - - [22] c R c, [24] 293

294 . 8.30, ( 0,5 ) R, [23] ( f 0,5) R [25] R cv [27] : ; ; -;, [81, 92] 294

295 , ( ). - -., -. (. 8.29), -, r, -,, -., %,.,,. ( ),, ( )., - : P, 2 2 ( r0 ri ) P, ; r 0 r i. : 3 3 3M / 2 ( r r ). 0 i , : ; ; ( Wykeham Farrance) 295

296 ,, -,,. 5 / 50 /. (. 8.28, ) -., ;.. -,,. -,. -,.,, - ( ) -. ( - ),, -,,. -, G., -.. -, -,. -., -, -., 0,77 0,85 [5]. (,, - ) , (. 8.28, ),, u., (. 8.28, ) (. 8.28, ),, -. -, W. irpatric,,

297 HCA (Hollow Cylinder Apparatys). (. 8.30, ) (. 8.30, )., : ( v ), ( h ) ( vi ). -, ,, : ; ( Wykeham Farrance); ;,, -.,, - :, (,..),, - ( )., -, (. 8.27) - (. 8.31)., -., 297

298 , R = ( max min ) / 2 (( max min ) / 2; 0)., V = max 3 = min ( 3 ) ( V 3 )/2 - (( V + 3 ) / 2; 0) - / 2 / 2 ( / 2; 0) ( / 2; 0), ;. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; ; ; nn ; mm , [27] (. 8.31),, -, -, (- ),. : - ( ),. ( ), -., -,, -. -,,. -,, -.. ( ) -. -, -.., -.,,. -,

299 ,, ( ). ( -).. () (). -. -,. (, ) ( ),. -. u - - -, -,. -. -,,. - ( ) (u) - () -. c u - ( = 0),. - -.,, BS , -. -,, -,, -., -, ,.,.,, : = 'tg + ', = ( u)tg + ', (8.11) ' ; ; ' ( ). 299

300 u, u < u < u < u < u < u 300 u > 300, -, - ;,.,,. ( ) (,,,.). -, , -,, - -, : - ( ),,,, -,,,,., -,. -, (. 8.32, ). : -.,, -,,. - -., -,. -,. - () (), - :, - (. 8.32, ). -, - ( ),.

301 : ; ; [5] = f(), ( ): = tg +, (8.12), ; tg ;,.,, : = tg. (8.13) (8.13) :. (), = f(). (), - = 0 (. 8.33). -,., - u, (8.11) l h (. 8.32, ). -., -, (dilatation).,. - h, - ( h)., (. 8.34,, ). = f(l) - (. 8.34, ). -, -, -. -,, -,

302 . -,.,,. (. 8.34, ),, (c ). V ( l = f(l) - (. 8.34, ), V = f(l) V) l: tg = V / l, tg = v / l, v. (. 8.34, ) - : = tg( cr ± ), , : ; ; ; ( = 0,35) ( = 0,80). 8.34, - (l) (II ) (I ). (II ) 302

303 ( max ),,. (I ) max,, - cr (. 8.34, a) %, () - ( ). (Atkinson and Bransby, 1978), (Skempton, 1970). max ( %), r (. residual), -. (Skempton, 1964), -., - - [5]. - (residual factor): R = ( max )/( max r ), [125]., ( max, ),, ( cr ), ( r ) (, cr, r ). : -, ;, ;, ; - ;, - ; ; ; -., -,,.,,, -,, -. c' tg', , ( ), - : ;. 303

304 -. -,,, (,,..)., -. -,,,. -,,,. -,.,. -,,. - : ( ), - ; -, ;,, ; ( ),, ; -. - : (. 8.35, ); () (. 8.35, ) : ; ; [5] - : - (),

305 , ,.,. -, -., -. () - -, I L 0,5,, -,,,.,., -,. -. [17]. -, - ( ),,. 70 1/3 1/2. (, ) 1/5. -,. - : -, ; - ; () ;, -. -,.,. : 1,225 2,,, -, -3, -2, -10, -. :,, ; - ; ;. 305

306 . ( ) 0, ( ), - : -. (. 8.36),, -, r, - c, c r,., [5] [140] (- ), ( ).. - (,.), - -,. :, ; ; - ; ; ; -., - ( - ).,, -, -. -,. 306

307 , w,, w.,,. : 10 ;, : I < 7 % 3, I < 12 % 6, I p < 22 % 12 I p 22 % - 36 ; 0, r r., -, -. r r -. - (). -, - t. max ( ). min i, - t, max (, 0,25 max, 0,5 max..) , -,. - (. 8.33). - :, 0,25; 0,5; 1; 2; 5; 10; 20; 30 1, , ; I L 0,25 0,1; 0,3; 0,5 ; - ; - I L 0,5; 0,25 < I L 0,5, ;,, - I L > 0,5 0,1; 0,2; 0,3 0,1; 0,15; 0,2, 0,1 0,2 0,05 0,1 0,1 0,025 0,05 0,05

308 - -., - ( - ), t 100. t 100.,,.,,, - (0,5-1 ),., (. 8.33). : 5 ; 15 - ; 30 ; 10. -,. -. ( ), ( ). v - v = l f / t f, ( 8.14) l f (), ; t f,., (8.14) l f, - 10 %. t f,..,, 5 %, : t f = 12,7 t 100, (8.15) t 100 ( (8.15) t 100 t 90 ),. 0,5 /. - (. 8.34) I p < 12 % I p 12 % I p 20 % I p 30 % I p 30 %, / 0,3 0,1 0,05 0,02 0,01 0,

309 5 % -,., (8.14). 0,25 0,5, ,,, -. -,, 0,3 = 0,05,., t, ,. 8.35, -. -, 0,05 %, , -. -.,,, : -,,, (0,5-1 ), , 309 -, 5 0,5 3 (- I < 12 % 6 I p ³ l2 % ) I p < 22 % 12 I p ³ 22 % , - (. 8.33). - : 5 ; 15 ; 30 ; 10 «-».,. -.

310 - 5 %,. 2, 1 -., 0,01 / ,, I p 12 % I p > 12 % I p 30 % I p > 30 %, / 0,5 0,1 0,05 0,02 0,01, () - 5 ( ). 10 %.,, -, - 5., -. ( ).,, -, -, -., -. max - - ( ). - min i, t, - max , 0,5 I L < 1,0 0,05; 0,1; 0,15 I L 1,0 0,025; 0,075; 0, , 0, ,

311 10%-,, /, 2., () - 5.,, -, 5., -. -,, : 10Q 10P,, S S Q P -, ; S, l, -, = f(l) (. 8.37, )., l = f (t) l, : = f (l); = f(),, = f() (. 8.37, ), -,, - = f () : n i i i i tg ; 2 2 n( i ) ( i ) (8.16) 2 i i i i i c ; 2 2 n( i ) ( i ) (8.17) 311

312 i, s i ( n 3) - ; n. r r. r = tg r + r, (8.18) r ; r r. -,. : - ; ; ; - ;,. «-»,.,.,, -.,., - -, - [5]. -. () ( 0 ), -,,,.,,,..,,,, -.,,, -,,,. -.,.,.,, - ().,,.,, 312

313 ,.,.,.,.,,, [50]. I II -, III II (, -,,.). [109] -,, [111], - III, II., ,, - 20 % 5 % (,.),, - S r. 8.38, 0,45 0,55 0,65 0,75, 2 1, , 3 2 1, , 6 4 2, , , ,,,., 0, ,0001, 0,5...1,0 -., -. -,, : - (,,, -, ),,, -,. - ( ) -,.,,

314 - : -,. (). -,, [50].,. 8.39,, 5 % S r 0,8., ,., I L S r, -, [102, 111] I L 0 I L 0,25 0,25 < I L 0,75 0 I L 0,25 0,25 < I L 0,5 0,5 < I L 0,75 0 I L 0,25 0,25 < I L 0,5 0,5 < I L 0,75 -, 0,45 0,55 0,65 0,75 0,85 0,95 1,05, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , I L S r,, I L S r., I L S r., - -,, ,05 < I r 0,

315 8.40 I L 0 I L 0,25 0,25 < I L 0,5 0,5 < I L 0,75 0,75 < I L 1 I r, I r = 0,05 0,1 I r = 0,1 0,25 0,65 0,75 0,85 0,95 1,05 1,15 1,25 1,35, , , , , , , , D d, % , / 3 1,0 1,05 1,2 s, / 3 1,5 1,60 1,80 w,.. 3,0 2,2 1,7 5,5 4,0 3,0, , Ir, % 315 3, % w,.. s, / u, ,5 4,5 2,0...2, ,8...2, > ,4...1, < ,2 3,7 2,0...2, ,8...2, ,4...1, ,5 1,8 2,0...2,5 1, ,5 2,5 1,8...2, > ,5 3,0 1,4...1, , 0,055,. : 1-, - ; 2-, -, -, -,, ;

316 3-, :, - (. 8.43); u,,... [3], u,,, >0, ,02...0,01 1, 2 2 0,01...0, , 3 <0, u, <8, 1,5. - 1,5, -, , , :, - ( -, ); R c < 0, : -, (d 2 ) 20 % ; R c < 0,

317 8.45, 0,45 0,55 0,65 0,75 0,85 1,0 1,2, , , , , , , I L I L < 0 0 I L 0,75 0 I L 0,25 0,25 < I L 0,5 0,5 < I L 0,75 0 I L 0,25 0,25 < I L 0,5, 0,55 0,65 0,75 0,85 0,95 1,05 1,2, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , k bc k b, [82], -, %, % 90 % % 90 % % 90 % (. 8.43),, 0,85 1,00,, 1,2 1,05 1,05 0,95 0,90 0, < 1 - : k k 46(0,3), k 1 k 46 n1, 1 k bc k b 317

318 k 1 :,, k 1 (. 8.38, ),,, k 1 = 1; k, ; n1 -, - (k 1 = k = 1), 1 (. 8,38, );, = 1 / 2 I p (1 + I L ), 1 - ( 2 ); 2 2 ; I p - ; I L [82]: n1 n2 ( 1, 2 ); k 1 ; n1 ( ); n2 ( ) : = k 2 k 79 0,32 /(1 + I L ) 3,62, = k 2 k n1, k 2 : -, k 2 = 0,9, -,, k 2 = 1; k, -, 1,,. 8.18, k = 1,1, 0,1 / 3 ; 318

319 k = 0,9, 0,1 / 3 k = 0,8, 0,2 / 3 (. 8.18); n1 -, - ( k 2 = k = 1), (. 8.38, ). - - (0 < 0,6) : k1k 37(0,234), k1k n2, n1 -, ( k 2 = k = 1), 2 (. 8.38, ). - : = k 2 k 87 0,51 /(1 + I L ) 3,85, = k 2 k n2, n2, ( k 2 = k = 1),. 8.38,. n1 n1 ( n2 n2 ) n1 n1 ( n2 n2 ), k [82] - n1 n1 ( n2 n2 ), % I L I, L 0,25 28 (11) 24 (8) 21 (6) 18 (5) 16 (4) 14 (3) 12 (3) 9 (2),. 38 (28) 41 (31) 43 (33) 44 (34) 44 (35) 45 (36) 45 (36) 46 (37) 0,25 < I L 0,75, 11 (11) 9 (8) 8 (6) 7 (5) 6 (4) 5 (3) 4 (3) 3 (2),. 36 (28) 40 (31) 42 (33) 43 (34) 44 (35) 45 (36) 45 (36) 46 (37) 0 I L 0,25,., (17) (40) 31 (23) 36 (31) 36 (27) 31 (24) 39 (30) 27 (20) 41 (32) 24 (16) 43 (34) 44 (35) 45 (36) 19 (13) 17 (10) 14 (6) 0,25 < I L 0,5,,. (21) (14) 18 (16) 29 (21) 16 (12) 34 (26) 14 (10) 38 (29) 12 (8) 40 (31) 11 (5) 42 (33) 9 (5) 44(35) 7 (3) 45 (36) 0,5 < I, L 0,75 11 (9) 10 (7) 8 (6) 7 (5) 6 (4) 5 (3) 4 (2),. 27 (19) 32 (24) 36 (28) 39 (30) 42 (32) 44 (34) 45 (36) 0 I, L 0,25 43(42) 38 (34) 33 (27) 29 (22) 25 (17) 21 (13) 16 (9),. 23(16) 29 (21) 34 (25) 37 (29) 40 (31) 43 (33) 45 (35) 0,25 < I L 0,5, 19 (17) 17 (14) 15 (11) 13 (9) 11 (7) 8 (4),. 26 (19) 31 (23) 36 (27) 39 (30) 42 (33) 44 (35) 0,5 < I L 0,75,,. (10) (16) 10 (8) 30 (21) 9 (6) 34 (28) 8 (5) 38 (29) 6 (4) 41 (32) 5 (3) 44 (35) k k e 0 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,8 1, ,05 0,94 0,94 0,95 0,96 0,96 0,97 0,98 0, ,1 0,87 0,88 0,89 0,9 0,92 0,94 0,96 0,97 0,98 1 0,2 0,77 0,77 0,78 0,81 0,83 0,85 0,87 0,9 0,94 0,98 0,3 0,63 0,64 0,66 0,69 0,72 0,75 0,77 0,81 0,86 0,93 0,4 0,52 0,53 0,54 0,57 0,61 0,65 0,67 0,72 0,78 0,88,, -,. 8.49, -., -, %, 1,

320 , / 3,,. 1,4...1, ,5...1, ,5...1, ,4...1, ,4...1, ,6...2, ,6...2, ,6...1, ,,., ( u > 3), -, ; -, ( u < 3),,. 8.50, , , , , , , (),, (S t ): St. S t,,, S t [34] S t ~ <10 1 < S t < S t >30 4 < S t 8 >16 >50 S t > 8 > , -,,. - -, -,.

321 [47].., - : th ; th ; th. - ( ). -, -, (). -, - -. :,, ; ; - ; (.) ; - ; - ; ,, (- ) 20,. -, 2. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ( ); 11 ; 12 ; [47] 321

322 ,. 70 0,6...0,7. -, -,., : ;. - -., -., -., - ( ) ( ) , -. -, I L S r I L < 0,5 S r < 0,50 0,5 I L < 1,0 0,50 S r 0,80 I L 1,0 S r > 0,80, 0,1; 0,15; 0,2 0,05; 0,1; 0,15 0,025; 0,075; 0,125 (.) -,.., %,, ,

323 /,, 2., -, -, 5., ,, (8.16) (8.17). th,. l, - th, l = f( th ). th = f() [47]. ( th ) (). -, : th = (a bw V ), (8.19) a b,, ; w V [117]. (8.19) th c th ( c) - : th = / g()th m (8.20) c th = c/ g(c)th m, (8.21) g()th (. 8.53); g(c)th (. 8.54); m, - - (. 8.55) [117]. - : th = / g, c th = c/ ' g(c)th ' m, g,, (. 8.56); ' g(c)th ' m,, ( ). 323

324 g()th g()th I L, 0 < I L 0,25 0,25 < I L 0,5 0,5 < I L 0,75 I L > 0,75 1,05 1,15 1,20 1,05 1,10 1,25 1,25 1,10 1,02 1,10 1,10 1,05 g(c)th 8.54 g(c)th I L, 0 < I L 0,25 0,25 < I L 0,5 0,5 < I L 0,75 I L > 0,75 1,20 1,40 1,60 1,30 1,15 1,35 1,50 1,20 1,10 1,20 1,30 1, m ( f ) f,.. m f 0,01 1,00 0,01< f 0,03 1,15 0,03 < f 0,07 1,30 0,07 < f 0,10 1,50 f > 0,10 1,80 - th = p th tg th + c th, p th, ; th c th (8.20), (8.21) [117] g g 1,05 1,10 1,15 1,15 1,20 1,25 1,20 1,25 1,35 1,25 1,30 1,45. eq. eq,, -,, -,. eq - 10 % (I r 0,1),,, -. [17],

325 . - ( 8 - ) : [T bf +( 0,5)] ( 5) º; [T bf +( 0,5)] ( 8) º, T bf , i 0, (. 8.40): (22 ± 2) - ; ; ; ;.,. 12 -,, : -,, ; -, ; ; -. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ( 5:1); 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 11 ; : [140]; 325

326 , -, - R,., : eq = f(t, t, P) , : 0,005d < S 15 < 0,05d, d, ; S 15 15,.. -, -.,,. - (8 ) 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, , 2, ( ),., 6 ( ). ( ). 8 ( )., 0, :. -,,. - ( 8 - ). eq,, 0,01 c eq 0,06 k P, ; d, ; S -, ; k, 1 0, P ds,

327 - -, : 8 K p ceq / ceq, c eq, -, ; c 8 eq,,. : ( - ), - R af ; - R sh ; R sh,i. -,,,,. R af, R sh R sh,i, /2 1/3.. : (,. 8.41, ); -,, ; -,, ; ;. - 0,7 1,5. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; : [140]; [17] 327

328 (, ) , -, -, ; ; ; ;, ; -.,,.,, -,,. - 0,1. Q 1 - Q,, R af, R sh R sh,i -, - : Q 1 = 0,1R af, o S af, R af, o -,. Q,, : Q = Q 1 /2. Q 1 Q : Q 1 = 1 S af ; Q = S af, 1,,. 8.58; S f, 2 ;,, ,,, 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3, R af 0,09 0,11 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,20 0,23 0,26 0,31 0,35 0,07 0,09 0,11 0,13 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,21 0,24 0,27 R sh 0,12 0,15 0,17 0,19 0,21 0,22 0,24 0,29 0,34 0,38 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,13 0,15 0,16 0,18 0,21 0,24 0,27 328

329 8.59, C, 0 1 0, , ,03 6 0,04 1, - R af 0,7. 1 R sh -. -, (8 ) 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, , 2, ( ),. -, 0,01 12.,, -, 12-., -,.. -,,,, , Q o,,. - -, - R f,,, R f, = Q o / A af. l (. 8.42, ). R af, R sh, R sh,i -, - «-» - ln(l) ln() (. 8.42, ). R af, R sh, R sh,i [17] [104]. 329

330 8.60 [104] R af, (/ 3 ),, 0,3 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3, (0,4) (0,6) (1,0) (1,3) (1,5) (1,8) (2,0) (2,3) (2,5) (3,0) (3,4) (3,8) (5,0) (8,0) (1,3) (1,6) (2,0) (2,3) (2,6) (2,9) (3,3) (3,8) (4,4) (5,0) (); () -..,..,..,..,..,..,..,..,..,.. -.,. -, -,.,, ( ) : < < < <.,,,,. -,, -,. -., -. (D sal ) ( ps ). (w tot ) ,, -., : [50]. 330

331 ,, -. : - ;,, 20 % ; -, (), (. 8.43) - = 25º, 35º, 45º. - - [24]. -,.. 42 ± 2, ( ), 1,0 ± 0,1. 0,2. -, -. 0,2. : - ( ) ±0,1 ±2,0. - ( = 25º, 35º, 45º) , /. -, (), (),, - : 10P 10P cos, sin, S S : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; º, 35º, 45º, ; -,.; S = h;,

332 :, [24].., -, : - - (,,, -,,, ),, -., -..., -,., ( ) - :, -. :,. -,, : a = R / R, R R (, ) [50] ,.,, - -. :,, -,,., -, ( = 0 )., -,,.. = + + +, ;, ;,.,.,,. 0,

333 0. -.,.., [50]. (. 8.44), -,. 0,8...1,0., -, 5 45, : : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; -.,,.,, , (. 8.61) , ( 0 ) : 0,.,,. 333

334 , ;,.,,, [50] ,. - R,, -,. R - 0,5.,, -. -, - ( ), ( - ),,.. -,. -,,.,.. R c > R.,, -,. ( = 1 = 3 ) R c R.., -,.,,,,. -, -,.. (. 8.45) [23]. (. 8.47, ), -,,. 334

335 : ; : 1 ( ); 2 ; 3, - [23] , - ().. -,. -,. - (,..) , -. : - -, - ; ;, % - ; -;, -. -,,,, : - d ( a) 42 ± 2 ( = 40 ± 1 ), ( ), h:d 2: % 0,8. 335

336 , -.,, / ( ) - 10 P R, (8.22) p S, ; S, 2. n. - R, -. - :, - 0,01 ( 10 -, 10 0,10 ), - 1 % , ()., -,. : 1 ( ); 2 ; 3 ( ); : ) ; ), - -,, - ; - 0,3 ( 0,02 );, (5 ± 1) (. 8.46) : d ( a) 42 ± 2 ( ), 1,0 ± 0,1 ( 0,7 1,1 ).,, - ( 1 ). () -, () ( ). 0, /. ( ) (8.22). 336

337 3... -, - (. 8.47). a : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; : ; [47]; :,, -, -, -, ; - (. 8.47);, - () ( - 0,1 ) (15 ± 0,05) ; - -.,. -,, -. -, () , (15 ± 3) ( - ) () -, , 10.,. 8.47, ,. 0,1...0,5 /. -,

338 R,, - 7,5P Rp k, S P, ; S, 2 ; k -, 1 S = (15 ± 3) 2. S k ,10 2, 0,01 2. k S, k 0,76 0,72 0,76 0,85 0,90 1,00 1,08 S, k 1,19 1,24 1,28 1,32 1,35 1,52 1,61 (. 8.63) R c - R. 8.63, R c = 16R, R c = 20R R c = 18R R c = 21R R c = 25R R c 1 R c = 12R R c > 1 R c = 20R 8 R c = 25R ().. -. : , ; 20 ± 1, , - () -.., -,, () - ±2. -,, % - 30 %.

339 .,,., / -, (,, ) , ±0,05. -, 20, 0,5. R,, - (8.22), S = lb; l, ; b (),... - () /. R,, 10 P Rc, (8.23) S P, ; S, 2,, 2 [23] (). -, ,, R -, - [50] [50] : 339 R, : ,5...25,0 0,5...15, ,2...0, ,7...3,1 2,0...3,5

340 - - :,. R, R -,,. -. R ; -,, -,.. - (). -, -,,.,. - (- ). - ( ), -. R,,.,, - R 0,08...0,1, - - R 0, ,001.., R,,., -., -, - ( ), -.,. R R,,,,...,,,.,,, -. -, [50]. 340

341 8.4.4., -. -,,,. ( ) - f 0,5 ( 0,50...0,80 ) -,, - [25]. : - -, - - ;, 250 ; - - ; -, %, - ; (. 8.48), ± 1.. 0,1., -.,, / 2. -,, -. (R ), / 2, P R 0,75, h, ; h,. 10 %,, h = 1, R = 0,75P [25] R -,,. -, ( ),, (). R : 1 ; 2 [25]

342 , -,. - -,, -,. [84]:,,, -,. -, (. 8.49, ) : ; ; , -. (. 8.49, ).. R 20 % (. 8.49, )., -,, ( ),..,, ,,, -, -, ( ). -.,,, -...,,,. -...

343 -, -, 1 = f() 2 = f(), n - (8.4) (8.5) : -, %, 5 50 % R c. -, = f() 2 = f(). S t. -, -., - ( ), S t. - S t (R c ) - (R c ): S t = R c / R c. - L = 1 / S t. S t 1,2 1, c u,, (. 8.50), -, R c c u. (8.24) 2., -, -. - (. 8.51) : ; R c : R c / 2tg, = ( 0, = 45 ) (8.24). k sof. : -,. (,.). -, 343

344 -. [34],. k sof - (R cw ) - - (R c ): Rcw ksof. R k sof 0 1: k sof > 0,75, ; k sof < 0,75, -., -. - ;,,,,,. -., - ( 0,5).,,.. -, -, -, -.,., c,. 8.52, = R - ;,, R ( : 0,9R ; 0,8R ; 0,7R ; 0,6R ; 0,5R )., 0,1 % R I L 0,25 [17]. - -,,,,,,, -,, - -,, -,. 344

345 . R ; - R, - 0,,,. (. 8.53): ; - ; ( ). -., 50 ; , , : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; [140] [17]. -,, -,, -,. - (,,.). - ( ) ( ) ,8 2,0. (- ) 1/10 ( ). ( ) 60.,,,. 38 1,8 2,5. (, ) 1/ , ,01.

346 -, -, -. -.,, ,90 0, ,,,... 0,01.. (,,.) -., -..,, - (. 8.54). (). -.,, -. - R 0,1...0,5 /, 10 % - R ; ; 1 -, - R, , 0,5...2,0 % , -,,, - = 0,15.,. 346

347 R,, -, 0,1, 0,1 Rc 10 P, (8.25) S0 P,, ; S 0 -, 2. > 0,1, S 0 S. S 0,1. 2 d ( V V0 h const) 4 S. S (Sh = S 0 h 0 ): S 1 S 1., -, 2 S S 4 1 0,01-0,001 -., = 15 %., % R. - -.,. 0 n - 1 = f() 2 = f() (8.4) (8.5). -, = f() 2 = f() ,2 [5]. -, -,,

348 R c ( ), -.,. : «-» (.. ) -,. -,. - R c -., (. 8.65) R, <0,025 0, ,05 0,05...0,1 0,1...0,2 0,2...0,4 >0,4, ( ), -,..., (), (R c ) -, - R c. R c, -.,,.. [50] ; [22]., -,,,

349 . 70 %,.,, - ( , ). - ( , ). ( , ) : ; :,,,, ; [5], -,. -, -..,.,., (),,,.,, - [5]. -. -, -. - (. 8.55, ). -,. -.,, -. (. 8.55, ):, ;, ;

350 ., -. -, [5]. : R, ;, ;. [22]: 1) ( - 5 ); 2) - ( ). [22]. -, -. : - : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; ,, - ; -, % ; 0,3 d ( ) -, ( ), (. 8.56), - ( - ),., ; - -,, -. (,..) , -.. ( - ),. -., -,, - (). -,

351 8.66, - ( ) 42 ± ± 2 1,0 2,0 0,7 2,0 2 ± 0,05. - d i h i - : , - 10., -,,,, (. 8.56)., /., h/d ,. 10, 30. () i- 10PK Rc, S, ; S, 2 ; K, 1-2 ± 0,05. h/d K : 0,01 2, 0,10 2 ; h/d 0,10;, 0,01, ( 10, ,10, 100 0,50 ); - 0, K m 0,70 0,80 0,90 1,00 1,20 1,40 1,60 1,80 2,00 K 0,68 0,72 0,76 0,80 0,86 0,90 0,94 0,97 1,00 - [22]. -, ( - ): (. 8.57), -, ,27 ( - 7,98 ). 351

352 : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; , ; ( 120 ) 7,5 8,5 ( 100 ). 6. (. 8.57), - (),. 0,1...0,5 /. -,, - m = h/d.. () - (8.25), S 0, 2, (), S 0, 2 : 11,27 1,52 1,79 2,03 2,26 2,50 2,72 2,94 3,16 7,89 0,90 1,06 1,23 1,39 1,56 1,72 1,89 2,05 -, [22]. (f) - : f = R c / 100.,,,. -, -. R c ( ) - ( ), ().,, - -. :, - (. 8.69).. (,,.),

353 , -. -, [50] R, , -,,,,, -. -,. (, ) (,.), (-,,, ).,, -. -,, - ( ) ( ). - -.,, -,,.,, : -,.,. - [50].,, R c,

354 R c - / 3 R c, 2,7 0,1 15 2,5 < 2,7 0,1 0,2 5 R c 15 2,2 < 2,5 0,2 5 [40]. -,, , 5 50 %. 5 :, ; ; 0, ; K wr R c,, 1 > K wr 0, ,95 > K wr 0, ,9 > K wr 0, , ,85 > K wr 0,8 2,5...5,0 5,0...7, K wr 0,8 2,5 5 5 : -, - - ;, ; ;, % ; 0,001 0,01; - ;, - 2 %;, %;. ( - )., ;..

355 : d ( a) (h : d = 2,0 ± 0,1), 42 ± 2 (h : d = 2,00 ± 0,05). ( ) (),. - ±0,1. - 5, 3., ( ) ±1 ±3., -, (. 8.58) ,, - (), -. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; ( ), - 5 % ( 0 = 0,05R ) , (), ( 1-2 ).. «-» (. 8.59), 0,,, : 10, 1, 1, 1 10 ', 1 ', 1 ', 1 '; 20, 2, 2, 2 20 ', 2 ', 2 ', 2 ' [40]. - ( ) - (8.4) (8.5)

356 ,, - : 1 = l / l, 2 = d / d ( / ), l, ; l -, ; d (a) ( ), ; d / ( ),. : - 0,,,,,.., - () - (). -, ,, (, ): -, ,,. - -.,,,, -., -, -. (, ). - ( )

357 [50] , G, , ,12...0,29 0,22 0,24 0,26...0,32 0,23...0, : ,9...33, , ,1...6, , , ,14...5,9 4,1...19,0 0,9...2, ,19...0,45 0,3...12,8 3,3...14,5 0,17...0,24 0,10...0,25 0,15 0,14...0,19 0,11...0,28 0,16...0,24 0,14 0,1...0,39 0,26...0,30 0,25...0,31 0,28...0,31 0,09...0,19 0,23...0,24 0,18...0,30 0,20...0,30 - -, (). -,,,., -,,,. -. -, -, -,. -,,,. -,.,..., (,.), -.,,., -, - - [50].

358 , 2, I 0, [17]: - R c ; - R oc ; : E; ; A; : ( - ),, -. : ( ) - ; ; -. - : 1 / 5 ; - 30 ; 0, : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 11 ; 12 ; [140, 17], : - ; - ; - ;

359 -, - ( - - ), 15.,. - - R oc [17].,,, - 1 /. -,,, - 0,20,, R oc,, : P Roc ; S 0 P Roc, S S 0 S ( ), 2 ; P, H. - R c E, A [17]. K,,, H - ( z,i = const). H P, H, 2 z, id i P, 4 d i -,. H z,i,, : Rcni Rni zi,, zi,, 10 5 R c -, -, ; n i ; R, (. 8.73). - P P - 3 % (2 71,4 ) -. P, H, 359

360 2 2 P zi, ( djl, di, j1), 4 d i, j, ; d i, j 1 -,. : d = d 0 (0,89 + 0,97), d 0, ; -, , 0,3 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3, i i < 0,2 0,55 0,95 1,25 1,45 1,6 1,8 1,95 2,0 2,2 2,6 2,95 3,3 0,45 0,7 0,9 1,1 1,3 1,4 1,6 1,7 1,8 2,2 2,55 2, ,3 0,5 0,7 0,8 1,05 1,15 1,30 1,40 1,5 1,9 2,25 2,5 4. 0,25 0,45 0,55 0,65 0,8 0,9 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,55 1,9 2,2 - (. 1 4) i i 0,2 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,75 0,85 0,95 1,25 1,55 1,75 24, 48. H - (. 8.61, )., ( -, - ) 0,20. -, - 0, R c,, : R c = 0,6 k 1, k 1, k- -, -,. [17]. () -, -,. 71, , K, -, 0,01 12, -. H. 360

361 (. 8.61, ),,,. - v i (/) hi v, ti h i - i-, ; t i - i-, : ;, i = f( i ); v i - i, 1/, i- vi i, (8.22) h h,. H i, i = f( i ) (. 8.61, ). -., -.,.,, 10 : 2 1, 3 1, A (. 8.61, ), ; 2, B, ; (8.22). 361

362 , (..) -. -, E, - A. (E) -,. (A), -. E A, -, - t: (, t) = f()t, (8.23) f() t, 1, - : f() = / 0, f() = ( / 0 ) 1/m, 0 0 f(); m. : E = E 0 t u ; A = A 0 t u, t u, (50 = 4, ); [17]. (8.23)., - i,j,, - (i = 1, 2...), - i-, t j. i, j = i 1, j + i, j, i 1, j - t j ( 0, j = 0); i, j -, (. 8.61, ),, i- t j,, i-. t j -, 5, 10, 20, , 2 -. (. 8.61, ). f( 1 ) e i,j - = lnt, y = ln 1 j (. 8.62, a). f( 1 ) : a = b, f ( i ), a j b - y = j + bx (. 8.62, a), [17]. f( 1 ) x = ( i ), y = f( i ) (. 8.62, ) E 0 0 = 1 /, 362

363 y = cx,, - (. 8.62, ), c - (x) -,. f( 1 ) = ln i, y = lnf( 1 ) (. 8.62, ) A 0 m : A 0 = e a, m = 1 / b, a b y = a + bx (. 8.62, ),. (- ) - x = ; y = x (. 8.62, ). = 1 /, c y = cx,, - ( 8.62, ) [17] : f( 1 ): = lnt, y = ln 1 ; x = ( i ), y = f( i ); : = ln i, y = lnf( 1 ) : x = ; y = x [17] -,,,,. -, 0,8 0,9,. ( S r > 0,8 0,9),,.,, , [50] 363

364 - [50] () w w tot ,3 0,43 0,75 5,5 6,6 9,6 0,5 0,48 1,30 3,6 5,5 6,1 0,3 0,45 7,15 10,4 0,3 0,48 0,86 7,3 9,0 11,1 0,5 0,65 1,50 5,3 8,0 8, [109, 111], -,,,. - 1, : 1 > 2 3 > 0 ( ), 1 > 2 = 3 > 0, 1 ; 2 = 3,., ; - ; -,.,, - :,.;, ; u, ; E, ; G, ; K, ;. -, -. : ;, - ; ; ;,, - ;. : ; ; - ; ; -,. - 2 % - ; 1 ; - 2 % ; 0,01 ; 0,05 %.

365 . 8.63,,. - - (),.. 1 = 2 = 3. -, = 3 [140]. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8, 9 ; 10 ; 11 ; : ; [140] - ( ) 3. (. 8.64): - () - -, - ; - () v - ; - () - v - v [136] 365

366 -, S r 0,85 [5]., -. -, ( = 0),, - u = / 2-3, (. 8.65, ) :. 24, (,. 8.65) (u), - (,. 8.65). -, -., - (), , -., = 3., -. ( 24 ) - ( 1 3 ) -,. -., , (. 8.65, ). [5]. [17]. 366

367 () ,01, 0,03 % ,85 2,25., 1/ ,5...1,0 -., , 50 %

368 ,,..,. -.,.. () -, -,.,.. -,. ( 0,01 ). - ( 2 ) 10 30,. - - ; ; ( ) - ; - ; () ( ); () [17]., - () (). - ( - ), (), - -. :,, -. : 25 ; 50 ;

369 u = f( 3 )., 45º. u = f( 3 ) 45º,, ,, 30. h. - -, -, -. -, -.. -, -, u 15, u., u - 3 : = u / 3., (- ), -. -, ,95 1,0, 300, (- ) ( ). 1 0,5...2 % % - 369

370 . - 1 % -. ( ) 1 = 0,15.,.., -. - () [17]. -,, -., -,, -. 3,. -.,max -. -, max (, 0,25, max, 0,5, max..) ( ), , 15, - -., - 100% ,, ; I L 0,25 0,1; 0,3; 0,5 0,1 0,2,, ; 0,05 0,1 0,1; 0,2; 0,3 : I L 0,5, 0,1 0,25 < I L 0,5, 0,025 0,05 ; 0,1; 0,15; 0,20 0,05 :,, I L > 0,5-0,05; 0,075; 0,1 0,025 - V c. 370

371 100%- - V - V = f( t) ( V = f(lgt)). 100%- (t 100 ) ( 5 15, -, - 100%- - ). 100%- -, 0,2, 0,5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 30, 1, 2, 4, v - V = f( t) V = f (lgt), 90%- (t 90 ) 50%- (t 50 ). V c -, h. -. (- ) ( ) ,5...2 % % % - 2. ( ) 1 = 0,15 ( ) [17]. -,,. v - - ( h hc ) 1 f, (8.24) F t50 h, ; h c, ; 1f (, 1f = 10 %); 371

372 F, ( F, - 95%-,. 8.76); t 50, 50%-, F F h i / D i = ,1 34 8,4 34 7,2 56 9,2 64.,, F, % -. - v., 1 % ( - ) 1 = 0,15.,.. -,. - () [17] v. - -, , -,. 3. (8.1) -, -, 1 %. -, 10 %., - (8.1)

373 - 1 = 0,15. -, , , : 1, 5, 15, 30 0,5 ; 1, 5, 15, 30, 1, 2, 4, 6 8,, , % I L 0, I L > 0, I L 0, I L > 0, , , -, -., 0,15 %, ,, 0,05 %, , 5, 15, 30 0,5 ; 1, 5, 15, 30, 1, 2, 4, 6 8,, -. -,.,.. -,

374 : h, ; 1 : h 1, (8.25) h hc h, ; h c - () - -, ( V, 3, - -). V v, (8.26) V Vc V v ; V -, 3 ; V c (). ( 1 3 ),, F S s 3 1 3, (8.27) S F, ; S, 2 ; S s, 2.., 0,02, S. S i : - S S i b ; (8.28) v S i Sb, (8.29) 1 1 b. b 1 S c / S k b, hk / hc S c - - -, 2 ; S k -, 2 ; h c , ; h k,. S c - - S 0. S c - - S c = (V V c ) / h c, V c, 3 ; V -, 3. S - -,

375 : p p : 1 = f( 1 3 ), f( ); 1 3 : 1 = f( 1 ), v = f( 1 ), -, - ; 1, 2, 3, -, -, 15 %. - 1 = f( 1 3 ), 3 (. 8.66, ). H ( 1 3 ) p, - ( ) - 1 = 0,15, ( 1 3 ) / 2 - [( ) / 2; 0] (. 8.66)., (), f 3 f c u, (8.30) 2 1f 3f 1 3,. ' () - ', (), - - : N 1 arctg, (8.31) 2 N c, (8.32) 2 N e N : 375

376 n 1 f N n( 3 f 3 f ) 2 1 f ( 3 f ) 3 f 2 1 f ( 3 f ) 3 f 1 f 3 M 2 2 n( ) ( ) 3 f ' 1 ' 3 : ' 1 = 1 ; (8.33) ' 3 = 3, (8.34),. - ' c' ' 1 = f(' 3 ) (. 8.66, ) = f( 1 ). (. 8.66, ).,, v - ( ), - 3 ( 3 = 0), : 1 3 v, ; v 1 3, (8.35) 2 v. : G, K 50 : E E ( 1) 50c K, G, E50. 3(1 2 ) 2(1 ) ( ) 1 f c ( 1) 50, 2 1f ; 1 ; ( 1 ) 50 1 ( 1 ) 50 [17]. (- ) -, [5]. - -., -,,. v. (/), : r ; - ; r ; ; 3 f 2 ; f

377 . -.,,,, -., -, -, ( - ). : 2. 2, 3. c ; 1, -,, ;, ( ) [5] : - -, - - ; ; - ;,, 20 % ;, 20 % - ;, ( ), ( 0,5 ) ; [27]. : 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 11 ; [27] ( - ),, , ( ) 2,0 ± 0,1. 377

378 8.78 ( ), 42 ± 2 42 ± ±0,1. ( ) ( ),. ( ) 0,5.., -. 0,5.. - ( ) ±1 ±2..,, ( - ), -. -.,. ±5 %, /.., ( ) ( ).. -, (R cv ),, - R cv = 10 P /,,, ; S, 2. n., -. : -, ; - ; [27]. 378

379 8.7.,,, -.,., - (), (- ).. [84]., -. (, ) ,., -., 100,.,, -,,, ( ), -, - -,,,.,, -, -. b, / 2, H b = 1854F / 2, F,, ;,., -. - (-3) -, , (- ) () -, 2-.,. - :,. 379

380 . -, -,, -, 0,5. :,,, - (2,4 ± 0,01),. -,, -., ; , 60. -, , :, ( 20, 10 ) ,,. : n 60.,,. f 20n f, h 20, - ; n ; h,., - (. 2.3), K wr,, [34] K1 K0 Kwr, K1 K (. 8.68); K 0, -. -, 10 % - 380

381 2, [136] ,5, - 2 2,5. - 2, m 1 m 2., 2, - m 1 ' m 2 '., 1 %. m 1 ' m 2 ' - K 1. 1, 0, % m 1, % m 1 m 1 m % K 0, -. K fr,.., (. 8.68): q1 K fr, q 0 q 1 2 ( 2 ) ; q 0 ( ) , -, -.,, -, -, -,. -, - 381

382 , -,,. -,, -, - [1]., BS ASTM,, [17], -. ( - ),... -, ; -,., - ' c, -., -,. - [99]:, ;, - ; ;, -, - ;..,, -.,,, -., - -, -., - () - () ( lg), (lgt t) : m,, str, c v c a. ASTM BS c v, m v '. 382

383 log - -, - (. 8.69): (compression index); C s (swelling index); C r (recompression, reloading index) -., m v, m, - ( ), - -. BS ASTM,, -, () log log.. - ' c,. ',. - - (. 8.70)., -,, -. -, - ' ' (. 8.70)., ' - 1g.,. - p str ' c (BS, ASTM) ' c 383

384 ' c - - (. 8.71) g z ( - ): z = i z i, i., - z, - c,., -,, - (). 1g. (. 8.71) e o 1g,. - - ( ). ' c, [115]. - [80]: ' c = 23,5 c u / I p, c u, -,, I p, %. I p = % [80]: ' c = kc u, k I p : I p k 6,62 5,25 4,30 - : qc 1g cu, 13,6 6,65w w L. Skempton (1957), -, u / 1g = 0,11 + 0,0037 I. ' c - (PT) q c,, c u q c c u = q c / ( -, L ' c

385 ) [37]: : c u = q c / ; : c u = q c / 18 12; : c u = q c / [122] [122] ' c,, k c u ' c = q c,, 0,45 I p = 10 %; 0,35 I p = 20 % 0,30 I p = 30 %; q c,., [121].,, -, OCR (Over Consolidation Ratio), OCR = ' c / 1g, ' c - ; 1g - ( ). OCR = 1, OCR > 1.,,, - : OCR = e L / e [47]. -, c u OCR: u = 1g OCR m, = u / 1g (OCR = 1,0); 1g - ; m. 385

386 , 0,2 < < 0,5, m 0,7 < m < 0,8 OCR > 2 0,8 < m < 1,0 OCR < 2.,, -,, , (), sincrit Jaky (1944): k 1 sin crit, 3 1 sin - crit k 1 sin crit. Brooker & Ireland (1965): k 0,95 sin crit. 1sin( 11,5 ) Bolton (1991): crit k. 1 sin( 11,5 ) crt 2 sin Brick: crit k. 2 sin crt - = (1 sin ) OCR [102] k. Wroth (1965): OCR k ( OCR 1). 1 Schmidt (1966) ( ): k (OCR), sin( 1,2 crit ). Meyerhof (1976) = 0,5,,. OCR Pruska (1973):, - 1 a (1 OCR) 1 sin, a ', - 1 sin. (Maine & Kulhawy, 1982) [121]: = 1 sin' OCR sin'.,, , ,35 0,6 0,5 0,6 1,0 3,0 386

387 [5]: 0, OCR = 1 0 = 1 sin'; 1 sin a, OCR < 1 ; 1 sin 2 1 sin p, OCR > 1 tg (45 0,5 ). 1sin,, -,,, - BS ASTM, :, : (1 e0 ), C r lg( c / 1g) ', 1g ; ' - 1g ' c ; e 0 ; r (. 8.69), 1g ee0 Cr lg ;, : 2 (1 ep ) Ec, 1g 2 Cc lg c 2' = 1g + ' ' c (' = ' m 1g, ' m ); - ; c, (. 8.69) ' > ' c [4]. [17, 114] - E E m i o, E, z 2 zg 2 ( 1 e1 ) ; 1 ; e 1, e2 e1 1 i-o zg zi ; e 2 -, z z i zp ( z i- ); v - i- ; m, -, : m = m l m, m l, ( 1 3,5); m, ,.,. : -,, (m pl, m c ).,, -, [4] g

388 , [4] 1g, ', OCR 8.80, r C c ASTM H 2 6,1 0,111 0,327 2,9 0,018 0,057 20,1 23,6 H 2 28,2 0,332 0,342 1,0 0,024 0,065 23,0 30,4 HR 2 1 6,2 0,112 0,991 8,8 0,014 0,112 21,2 23,6. s c = [C c H / (1 + e 0 )]lg[( 1g + zp ) / 1g ], (8.15) C c, C c = 0,009 (w l 10 %); H ; e 0 - ; 1g ; zp [80]. : ) 1g + zp ' (8.15) C c C r, 0,025; ) 1g + zp > ' s c = [C c H / (1 + e 0 )]lg[' / 1g ] + C c H / (1 + e 0 )lg[( 1g + zp ) / ' ]. - :, ,, c u, a >150 ~ ~ ~ <20 c, a, ~ ~ ~ ~0...5 ~ c u,, -,, ( c u = / 2)

389 ,, -. c u - ( c ufv field vane) - : u ufv, c ufv, ;, c -,, [126] , : ; c ufv / 1g (. 8.73,, )., 1,2, -. 0,3.,, : : , ; 2 ; 3, ; 4 (NC); 5 (OC); c ufv / 1g : 1 (NC); 2 (OC) 389

390 , (. 8.74, ), -., - (NC),, () , NC, - OC. - 0,43 0,5, w L w L. OCR, 1,3, -, 0,45 0,43 OCR 1,3, w L OCR [126]. OCR, - c ufv = 0,45w L ' c, 0,15 0, 43 cufv. w L 0,58wL v0,, BS, ASTM,. -,, - [5]. : ;,. -., ,. -, -., , ( ), -,., - [140]., -,, - : ' c - OCR [4]. 0, ,5

391 -, -,, -., - -,,, -,, ,. -, - -.,,,, -,,.. -, (. 8.75),,, / - [67] :, ( : 6 ( ); 391

392 , - ; ( ) 0,2 ;. -, - 5 % [113]. -,. 8.76,. -. «-», -,., - (,, ),, : 1),,.; 2) ; 3). : 1) :, ; 2) : ) - ; ) ; ) (,, ); 3),,, ( ); 4),., -,.,,. ( - ).,, -.,,

393 -, ( ).. -,. : 1) (), -, - ; 2) (- ), ; 3), (,, ) -.,, , -, (1...8 ),. - -, [50]. - ( - ) (), ( ) [50] ( - ). -.,,., -, ( - )., -, : , ( ), : 1) ; 393

394 2) ( ) ( ); 3) ( ) -,,, - [50]., ( «secondary and primary wave» s- p-), - (. 8.78) : p-; (s-); (L-); (R-) [9] (-) -, K G (1 ) 3 2G v p, (1 )(1 2) ; G ; ;, - 2 : K G. 3, -. -,.,. G v s. 2(1 )., -,. L-,,.,, - 394

395 .,, c,, -., (..,.. ) [58] v p, / v s, / v s / v p ,60...0, ,50...0, ,45...0, ,30...0,55 ( ) ,10...0, ,50...0, ,50...0, ,10...0, ,07...0, ,07...0, ,05...0,15 ( ) ,05...0, ,40...0, ,35...0, ,50...0, ,50...0, ,45...0, ,40...0,55 t = ,40...0, ,50...0, ,50...0,60 R- v R (0,87 1,12 ) G 0,87 1,12, v R v. s (1 ) 1 : v p > v s > v R. : vp 2(1 ) 2 G, vs 1 2 G v p 2 1,4142. vs,, =,, - ( 1, 1 );. A0 x ( x) e, x A(x) x ; A 0 - ;,, - 395

396 ., -. G - (.) -. : vs(3vp 4 vs) 2 2, 2 ( 1 )(1 2) 2 v 2 (1 ) 2( vp vs) p v. s 1 G = v 2 s, ; v s, - v s = L / t s, L s-; t s,.,,, (, ). G max , - v s. 2 2 ( v v ). vs 2 1 2( ) 2 2 v E v p p vs,,, v 2 G ( v ) s 2 p vs 2 2( ) v p E G. K K ( vp vs). 3 -, -, - v s. K d, -,,. K d = 2 1,67lg(655/Vs), v s, / 2 ;, / 3 ; v s, /., -, v s = ( i v si ) h i / h i, h i i-, ; i v si i-, / 2,. p 396 s

397 K d : 0,5 ; 1,0, -, R 0 > 0,25 (2,5 / 2 ); 2,0 - - R 0,25 (2,5 / 2 ).,, - K d [81] ,.,,, ( 10 5 ) -, -. ( ) -, -. -,,,

398 [134] -,., -,,,, (SPT), - (CPT ), [62]. - (- 500 ) ( 0, ) - ( 10 ).,, -, : - - ; -;. - ( ) , [62].,. 398

399 (. 8.81, ), -,, -. -,.., ,,, -, ,,.. -, , c, : ; [62] -. D (. 8.81, ), -., -. D,, - 399

400 . D -. -,. a. K (. 8.81, ).,. -,. [62]. - (. 8.82, ), -., - ; ;., -,, (. 8.82, ). a ( ) [137, 62]: a ; ;, ;,

401 , -,,., (. 8.82, ). (. 8.82, ),. [62].,. - : -, - (. 8.83, ).., (. 8.83, ), :,, -.,., : ; ; [62] %,, -., -. - (Ishimoto, Iida, 1937; Iida, 1938, 1940). 20 (Shannon, Yamane, Dietrich, 1959). Hardin, Richart, 1963; Hall, Richart, 1963; Hardin, Music, , (ASTM Standard D ) [5]. 401

402 , ;, -., -,. - v s ; - G.,,. - D,. -,, -, - -., - () ()., -. (D) -,,., - : 1 ln 1, n n 1 1 n (n + 1). 2 D ,. 8.84,,, -., ,, ,. -.,. ( ). -,,. 402

403 ,, () [133]. : ;. 8.85,, ,,, ,, 1972.,. 8.85,, , -,,.,, : ; ( ); 403

404 .,, - [62]. (bender element)., - ()., -. 1, 12, 125 (. 8.86)., [131]., (. 8.86, ) : ; ;, ;,,,,, -, (. 8.86, ), -,. -,,,,, -., -,, 404

405 .,.,, -.,. G. ( ) -,,.. - -:. -,. [26] : -, - 25, ,, , 0, (50 500) 10 6 /; - 45 X- - - ; , 140, ;.,. -,. - S S, a l, -, : dt l vp ; 405 v

406 dt l vs, v v p v s, /; dt,, ; V.,,,, -, t,. -,. 1 l. 8.83, - -, , -, -, -, - -,, ,, / -,, ,, -. ( - ) (t p ) -, (. 8.88, )., -,. 406

407 ( - ) t s - (. 8.88, ) t p : ; s -, -,. -. v p v s (/) : l vp, tp t l vs, ts t l, ; t p -, ; t s -, ; t,., 10 /, -, v Ka 0,95 - II v v v II % 0, (UC Davis), 407

408 -, (. 8.89). -,,. - (- ),, , -,, -, (),,,.,, (), ,,, , ,,,,, -, XVIII,,. -,,, -,, 100 [116]. () 1964., - () 1983.,, ,, -.,,.. -.,,., - -,. -, : ) ; ) ; ) (. 8.90). -,, -,.,,,.,,., - 408

409 ., -., -..,, : ; ;, ; [9] -. -., -. -,,, -. -,, -,. «g»,,., -,,, -,. -, -,.. -, -., -,,,, ( ),.,., - -., - ( ) (- )

410 ( - -) - (. 8.91, I), ,. -, - (,,, ),, -. - ( ), (I), - (II) (III) :,, ;,,, [88] -., - D < 1,,. (, - ), (,, - ),, ( -, - 410

411 0,5,, ) (,, -, ) -, ( - ). -. ( ) -,,,.. (, ) -. -, ,.,, ( ). - (,, ), - [88]. - - (. 8.84) [109], 1,5 0,5 1,5 2,7 0,5 1,1 2,7 3,8 1,1 1,6 3,8 1,6 (, ) ( ) ( - ) ( ) 411

412 -, ASTM: D , D [113]. - :,, 5 %; ( ), [113].,, : <, ; -. -,

413 9. (-,,.),,., -,,, -. -,, ,. (, ). -. -, -,., -., (- ) -.,. - - (, ), ( ), - ( ) ( ). - -,,,. -. :.,, -,. (,.) ( -,, )., -,,, 413

414 (,,.). - - (, -.)., -, () (.,, -.,,, ( n ) -. = n / g, n ; g. (,,, ) -, ( 0,95, 0,85). g = : -. -,. -, , -. -,.,, -., -,, -,. -, -, -.,,.,,, ( ), -., -,, -,. -, 414

415 ,.,, -., ,.., -,.,,, -.,,,,.,.. -, - :, -.,., -. - : -,,,.,.., - f. (,.), f = 20, I, (, ), f = 0,3, X. -, ( f = 20), XI,, I.., -,. - -,., -,,, - 1., -,. -.,,., -. -, -., -. [54]:, - ; ; 415

416 , - ;,, - ;, - ;,. -,, -,,, ,, - -. : - ; ; - ;., ( ), -. -, -, -.,. : -, «-»,, ,,, -. (I...). (1570). -.. (1840),.. (1937),.. (1941, 1982),..,..,.... (1957),.. (1970, 1984),.. (1981). I... -, (), [52] ,,,,,, (.).. - (- ).. (1937),, - 416

417 ,,,, -...., -. 5,..,.,... -,, D., (,, ).. (, -, )., ,...,.., :,.... -,.., (). -,,,.,,,,.. -, -..,.., : I ; II ; III -., I :, -, II (- ) :,,,, ().,.,,,,. - -,, ( ). - - [50].,,,.., 417

418 .,, - -.,,, -, - [50]. Unified soil classification system (USCS US), :, -,,,, -., - BS () ASTM () ( ),.,, 25100, - I p > 1;, 0,05...2,0 I L., - (. 9.1). () ( 0,075 ASTM 0,063 BS), PI LL,. ASTM, BS. -, w p - w L PL LL, -. - ()., -, - - [4] : E Corp of Engeneers, USBR U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, AASHTO American Association for Highway and Transportation Officials, ASTM American Society for Testing and Material, USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture, ISSS International Society of Soil Science 418

[ ]:543.4(075.8) 35.20: ,..,..,.., : /... ;. 2-. ISBN , - [ ]:543.4(075.8) 35.20:34.

[ ]:543.4(075.8) 35.20: ,..,..,.., : /... ;. 2-. ISBN , - [ ]:543.4(075.8) 35.20:34. .. - 2-2009 [661.87.+661.88]:543.4(075.8) 35.20:34.2373-60..,..,..,..,.. -60 : /... ;. 2-. : -, 2008. 134. ISBN 5-98298-299-7 -., -,,. - «,, -, -», - 550800,, 240600 «-», -. [661.87.+661.88]:543.4(075.8)

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