Bellwork: Calculate the atomic mass of potassium and magnesium

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1 Bellwork: Calculate the atomic mass of potassium and magnesium

2 Chapter 5 - electrons in atoms Section 5.1: Revising the atomic model

3 What did Ernest Rutherford think about electrons? In Rutherford s model, electrons revolve around the nucleus like planets around the sun

4 What is the problem with this model? Rutherford's atomic model explained some but not all properties of elements It does not explain why some elements have different colored flames when heated It does not explain why glows different temperatures The atomic model was simply too simple

5 So what is really happening with electrons? Niels Bohr, a student of Rutherford developed a new atomic model in 1913 He altered Rutherford s model to incorporate discoveries of how an atom s changes associated with the absorption of emission of light Bohr proposed that electrons exist only in specific circular paths, or orbits around the nucleus Each possible electron orbit has a fixed energy, called an energy level Just like the rungs of a ladder, with the lowest rung representing the lowest energy level

6 What is a Quantum? A Quantum of energy is the amount of energy required to move an electron from one energy level to another An electron s energy is said to be quantized For a particular atom, the amount of energy an electron loses or gains is not the same The energy levels of an atom are not equally spaced Less energy is needed to move to a higher level when they are already in a high energy level

7 Is the Bohr model still valid? No! In 1926 Edwin Schrodinger developed a mathematical equation that described the behavior of an electron of a hydrogen atom Gave rise to the Quantum atomic model Like the Bohr model, this model requires atoms to have certain energies, but DOES NOT require electrons to take an exact path around the nucleus The model describes how likely it is to find the electrons in various locations around the nucleus

8 How do the Quantum Mechanical Model work? Probability describes how likely it is to find an electron in a particular location around a nucleus The model describes the movement of electrons in a similar way to the a windmill s blades or the propellor on an airplane You cannot distinguish the individual blades; they become a blur As a result, electrons are often modeled as a cloud, with a denser cloud where the probability of finding an electron is high

9 Atomic orbitals An atomic orbital describes the probability of finding an electron at various location around the nucleus It is a form of mathematical expression The energy levels of electrons are labeled by principal quantum numbers (n). Integers, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. There are several different oribitals, each with their own shape and energy level Orbitals describe where an electron is likely to be found Each is labeled with a letter, s, p, d, f.

10 Atomic orbital shape Each orbital s shape indicates the region of space that an electron is likely to be found

11 Summary of principal energy levels and sublevels Each energy sublevel corresponds to one or more orbitals of different shapes. The orbistals describe where an electron is likely to be found.

12 Electron configuration in Atoms Section 5.2

13 In atoms, what is meant by the term electron configuration? An electron configuration is the electron arrangement in the orbitals around an atom s nucleus The configuration of an atom is determined by: Aufbau Principle Pauli Exclusion Principle Hund s rule

14 Aufbau principle The Aufbau principle states that orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy, starting with the lowest energy In the diagram, each box represents an atomic orbital Orbitals at the bottom have less energy than orbitals at the top

15 How are you supposed to remember the order of electron energy levels?

16 The Pauli exclusion principle This principle states that no orbital may contain more than two electrons For example either 1 or 2 electrons can occupy an s or a p orbital Two electrons in the same orbital will have opposite spin A quantum mechanical property of electrons Think clockwise and anti-clockwise

17 Hund s rule Hund s rule states that electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy in way that maximizes the number of electrons with the same spin

18 An easy way to remember this. Electron Rules Apartment House Rules Aufbau Principle: the electrons fill the available orbitals from lowest energy to highest energy. In the ground state all the electrons are in the lowest possible energy level. From the Bottom Up : Rooms must be filled from the ground floor up. Fill the one room on the first floor before starting to put new tenants on the second floor. Then fill the s room before the p rooms. At higher floors the order might change a bit. Hund s Rule: The electrons must be placed into the orbitals in such a way that no pairs are put together unless absolutely necessary. That is, single electrons must be placed into boxes first and then paired up if necessary. Singles First : the owner of the building wants to have the tenants spread out as much as possible. For that reason singles are placed in rooms before couples. If couples must be placed into a room then all of the other rooms on that floor must already have a single in them. Pauli Exclusion Principle: Electrons come in two varieties based on the direction they are spinning. There is an Up spin and a Down spin. Up and Down spins are always paired together and Up-Up or Down-Down combinations are not allowed. No two electrons can ever be in the same place at the same time. Opposite Gender Only : When two people are placed in a room they must be of opposite genders. No men may room together and no women may room together. This is an arbitrary rule on the part of the owners: in a just world we wouldn t have to follow it. But quantum mechanics has nothing to do with justice.

19 How do we use all this information? The three rules are used to make orbital diagrams

20 How to write electron configurations Electron configurations can be written in shorthand The number of electrons in each sublevel can be indicated with a superscript number Sublevels in the same principal energy level are usually written together in electron configurations This means the order may be different from that in the Aufbau diagram - why?

21 Is it always this easy? Unfortunately no! If you follow the rules that we have spoken about, copper would have an electron configuration of: In reality it is: 1s22s22p63s23p63d94s2 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1 Why? The aufbau principle is generally correct though

22 Write the electron configurations for the following elements, how many unpaired electrons does each atom have? Carbon Boron Silicon Sulfur Argon Calcium Krypton

23 Section 5.3 Atomic Emission Spectra and the Quantum Mechanical Model

24 How does light relate to the Quantum Mechanical Model? Isaac Newton attempted to describe light as a series of particles Now, as a result of experimental evidence we know that light is better described as waves When discussing waves, they can be described on the basis of amplitude, wavelength and frequency Amplitude: Height of wave from zero to crest Wavelength: The distance between the crests of a wave Frequency: The number of wave cycles that pass a point in a given amount of time

25 Properties of waves can vary Amplitude, wavelength and frequency can change, but the speed of light never changes! Speed of light is always x 108 m/s Calculated from multiplying wavelength and frequency together

26 What is electromagnetic radiation? There are whole series of electromagnetic waves. In a vacuum all examples travel at the speed of light Visible light form part of the series of electromagnetic waves It is made of all the colors that you can see (white light) When this light passes through a prism, it can be separated into a spectrum of colors.

27 Rainbows form when you can see the spectrum of visible light Each water droplet acts like a prism

28 What is an atomic emission spectra? Electrons absorb energy when an electric current passes through a gaseous element Whereas white light contains all wavelengths for visible light, the light given off by a single element contains only a few colors If the electron absorbs the correct amount of energy they can move to a higher energy level When the electrons return to their normal energy level, they give off (or emit) light These colors show up as narrow lines of light, and are characteristic for an element (like an element s fingerprint) This is referred to as atomic emission spectra Each line corresponds to a wavelength of light emitted by electrons for that element

29 Atomic emission spectra explained

30 Atomic emission spectra could not be explained through classical physics In 1900, Max Planck, a German Physicist wanted to describe why substances produce the color they do when heated His only possible explanation involved assuming that energy changes occurred in small discrete units - A quantum Planck showed that the energy of quantum is equal to a constant (Planck s constant) multiplied by the frequency of radiation E = hv Planck s constant is always x j.s

31 The photoelectric effect In 1905 Albert Einstein used Planck s quantum theory to explain the photoelectric effect The photoelectric effect means that certain frequencies of light cause electrons to eject from a metal Einstein proposed that light could be described as quanta of energy that behave like particles These quanta are called photons The formula E = hv, means that all photons with the same frequency have the same energy level Einstein recognised that for the photoelectric effect to occur, a minimum energy value was needed Light can not always be modelled as particles in this manner, in some ways it does also behave like waves

32 How does electron excitation relate to the bohr model? In the bohr model, the 1 electron in hydrogen can only have certain specific energies When the electron is at it s lowest possible energy we refer to as its ground state An electron is excited when it absorbs energy and moves to a higher level Principal quantum number of 1 Electron dropping back to original level omits an quantum of energy Each possible transition produces line on atomic emission spectra Upper limit, as too much energy would cause electron to escape atom Bohr s model explained hydrogen's atomic emission spectra, but not those of atom s with more than one electron

33 How did Quantum mechanics change things? In 1924, Louis de Broglie asked whether matter can behave like waves? This idea was supported by research by Clinton Davisson and Lester Garner, who found experimental evidence that supported this idea They fired a beam of electrons at metal, and found that they behaved the same way as when x-rays reflect from metal surfaces Ground breaking work - received nobel prize in chemistry Paved the way for electron microscopy - allowing scientists to view small objects in a lot of detail

34 If all moving objects behave like waves, why don t we see it? An object s mass must be very small for it s wavelength to be observable Electrons are small enough that their wavelength is easy enough to measure De Broglie s predictions triggered a new way of describing motions of atoms and subatomic particles This gave rise to two branches of physics: Quantum mechanics: describes the motions of tiny particles as waves Classical mechanics describes the motion of larger objects, based on the idea that matter behaves as particles

35 What is the heisenberg uncertainty principle? You can not know the exact velocity and the exact position of a particle at the same time Although it applies to particles of all size, it s effects are more apparent when studying small particles such as electrons To locate an electron, you might strike it with a photon. The electron has such a small mass that striking it with a photon affects its motion in a way that cannot be predicted accurately. The very act of measuring the position of the electron changes its velocity, making its velocity uncertain

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