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1 Name Chapter 1 Chemical Fundatins Advanced Chemistry / / Metric Cnversins All measurements in chemistry are made using the metric system. In using the metric system yu must be able t cnvert between ne value and anther. Yu must memrize the factrs, prefixes and symbls in the chart belw. There are numerus ways t d metric cnversin. I present ne methd belw that I have used in my Hnrs and Chemistry I classes. Example: Cnvert 1.83 x 10-1 kilgrams t centigrams. Step 1. Subtract the pwer f ten value yu are slving fr frm the pwer f ten value yu are given. In this prblem yu are given 1.83 kilgrams and yu are cnverting t centigrams. Kilgrams have a pwer f ten value f 3; centigrams have a pwer f ten value f (-2) = 5 Step 2. Write yur result as the pwer f ten value f yur answer. In this prblem ur answer is 1.83 x 10-1 x Step 3. Put yur answer in prper scientific ntatin x 10-1 x 10 5 is cnverted t 1.83x10 4. Remember that when multiplying using pwers f ten yu add. Factr Prefix Symbl 1 x tera- T 1 x 10 9 giga- G 1 x 10 6 meg - M 1 x 10 3 kil- k 1 x 10 2 hect- h 1 x 10 1 deca- D 1 x x 10-1 deci- d centi- c 1 x 10-3 milli- m 1 x 10-6 micr- μ 1 x 10-9 nan- n 1 x angstrm Å 1 x pic- p Uncertainty in Measurement Depends n the precisin f the measuring device Fr example a measurement f grams is a mre precise measurement than 1.7 grams Reliability in Measurements Accuracy clseness t the actual scientific value Precisin getting repeated measurements in repeated trials Types f Errrs Randm: errr in measurement has equal prbability f being high r lw Systematic: errrs all ccur in the same directin General Rules fr determining if a Number is Significant 1. Draw a bx arund all nnzer digits beginning with the leftmst nnzer digit and ending with the rightmst nnzer digit in the number. 2. If a decimal is present, draw a bx arund any trailing zers t the right f the riginal bx. 3. Cnsider any all bxed digits significant. Example 1: 20406: 5 significant digits Example 3: 4000: 1 significant digit Example 5: : 4 significant digits Example 2: : 2 significant digits Example 4: : 4 significant digits Example 6: 3.00: 3 significant digits Additin r Subtractin using Significant Figures The answer can nly be as precise as the least precise measurement. Example (precise fur places t the right f the decimal) (precise fur places t the right f the decimal) (precise three places t the right f the decimal) runds ff t (answer must be precise three places after the decimal) 1

2 Multiplicatin r Divisin using Significant Figures The answer can have n mre ttal significant figures than there are in the measurement with the smallest ttal number f significant figures. Example: (5 ttal significant figures) x (4 ttal significant figures) runds ff t (4 ttal significant figures) As a general rule, if yu are unsure hw many significant figures t us n the AP exam, use 3 significant figures. This may nt always wrk but it will wrk mst times. Hwever yu shuld always pay clse attentin t using the crrect number f significant figures in all calculatins. Scientific Ntatin In chemistry, we ften use numbers that are either very large (1 mle = atms) r very small (the mass f an electrn = kg). Writing numbers with s many digits wuld be tedius and difficult. T make writing very large and smal numbers easier, scientists use an abbreviatin methd knwn as scientific ntatin. In scientific ntatin the numbers mentined abve wuld be written as x and x Cnverting a number t r frm scientific ntatin If yu mve the decimal place t the left, the pwer f 10 value increases. If yu mve the decimal place t the right, the pwer f 10 value decreases. Example 1: Lk at the first number frm abve: T put this number in scientific ntatin yu wuld mve yur decimal place until there is ne number t the left f the decimal. T d this, we must mve ur decimal 23 places t the left. When yu mve the decimal t the left, the pwer f 10 value increases. It increases frm 0 t 23. Thus, the answer is x Lk at the secnd number frm abve: T put this number in scientific ntatin we must mve ur decimal 31 places t the right. REMEMBER: Yu shuld always have ne digit t the left f the decimal w en writing numbers in scientific ntatin. Since we are mving ur decimal t the right, we must decrease ur pwer f 10 value. It decreases frm 0 t 31. The answer is x Rules fr multiplying & dividing using scientific ntatin: When multiplying tw numbers in scientific ntatin, ADD their pwer f 10 values. Fr example: (3.45 x 10 6 )(4.3 x 10 5 ) = x But, we must als remember t express ur answer in significant figures. Thus, the final answer is 1.5 x When dividing numbers in scientific ntatin, SUBTRACT the denminatr s pwer f 10 value frm the numeratr s pwer f 10 value. Fr example: (2.898 x ) (3.45 x ) = x 10-3 (I had t add the zer at the end t get the three significant figures needed.) I gt 10-3 because = 3. Make sure yur answer is in prper scientific ntatin (ne number t the left f the decimal). In this prblem we have t mve the decimal ne place t the right. When we mve ur decimal t the right, we decrease ur pwer f decreases by 1 t 4. Our fi al answer is: 8.40 x 10-4 Dimensinal Analysis Used t cnvert a number frm ne system f units t anther. Understanding dimensinal analysis is crucial. This prcess will help yu when perfrming difficult calculatins later in the year. Yu will find a cmplete listing f English/Metric Equivalents n the last page f yur text bk. Cnversin factrs d nt need t be memrized. 2

3 Example: Calculate hw many kilmeters there are in 5 miles. Slutin: (Needed Equivalents: 1 mile = 1760 yards, 1 meter = yards) 5 miles x 1760 yards x 1 meter x 1 kilmeter = 8.04 (runded t) 8 kilmeters 1 mile yards 1000 meters Example: Cnvert 55.0 miles/hur t meters/secnd Slutin: (Needed Equivalents: 1 mile = 1760 yards, 1 meter = yards, 1 hur = 60.0 minutes, 1 minute = 60.0 secnds) 55.0 miles x 1760 yards x 1 meter x 1 hur x 1 minute = (runded t) 24.6 m/s hur 1 mile yards 60.0 minutes 60.0 secnds General Rules fr Runding Numbers in Chemistry Rule 1. If the digit fllwing the last significant figure is less than 5, the last significant figure remains unchanged. The digits after the last significant figure are drpped. Example: Rund t three significant figures. Answer: 23.4 Explanatin: 4 is the last significant figure. The next number is 3. 3 is less than 5. Thus, 4 remains unchanged and 37 is drpped. Rule 2. If the digit fllwing the last significant figure is 5 r greater, then 1 is added t the last significant figure. The digits after the last significant figure are drpped. Example: Rund t tw significant figures. Answer: 5.4 Explanatin: 3 is the last significant figure. The next number is 8. 8 is greater than 5. Thus, 1 is added t 3 making it 4. The 83 is drpped. As a rule, when perfrming a series f calculatins, wait until the very end t rund ff t the prper number f significant figures instead f runding ff each intermediate result unless yu are changing frm additin /subtractin t multiplicatin/divisin r vice versa. Example 1: = WRONG: = (runded t 13.3) = (runded t) 15.9 CORRECT: = (runded t) 16.0 (precise t 1 place after the decimal) Example 2: ( ) = In this case yu uld su tract and ROUND t the prper number f significant figures and then divide because yu are changing between significant figure rules. CORRECT: ( ) = 2.00 (precise t 2 places after the decimal) = (runded t 3 ttal significant figures) Temperature Cnversin C: Celsius r Centigrade K: Kelvin in (named fr Lrd Kelvin, a.k.a. William Thmsn ) Fahrenheit is nt used in AP Chemistry s we will ignre it. K = C C = K 273 (These frmulas must be memrized) Example 1: Cnvert 29.0 C t Kelvin. Example 2: Cnvert 888 K t C. = C = K = 302 C = 615 3

4 Density Density (d) is the rati f the mass (m) f a substance t the vlume (v) ccupied by the substance. Pure water is used as the standard in measuring density. The density f pure water is 1.0 g/ml. In mre precise calculatins the actual density f water will differ slightly. If a substance has a density less than water, it will flat; if a substance has a density greater than water, it will sink. Mass is expressed in grams (g). Vlume is expressed in liters (L), milliliters (ml) r cubic centimeters (cm 3 ). A ml is the same as a cm 3. Thus, density f a liquid r slid can be expressed as g/ml r g/cm 3. The density f a gas is expressed in g/l. Example: A piece f wd has a vlume f 3350 cm 3. If the density f the wd is g/ml, what is its mass? d = g/ml = X v = 3350 cm X = x 10 3 grams (3 significant gits) m = x Percent Errr The accuracy f yur measurements can be checked by calculating the percent errr. In a percent errr calculatin yu will cmpare yur experimental value t the accepted scientific value (referred t as the theretical value). Since yu are taking the abslute value f the subtractin, yur percent errr will always be a psitive number. Remember t use significant figures in all % errr calculatins. In mst quantitative lab experiments yu will be expected t calculate yur % errr. Example: The theretical density f aluminum is 2.70 ml. In an experiment a student measures the mass f an aluminum bar t be grams and finds the vlume f the bar t be 4.71 ml. Calculate the student s percent errr. First find the experimental density: d = d = 2.66 g/ml 4.71 theretical yield - experimental yield %Errr = x 100. theretical yield Nw use the experimental value t find % errr. %E = x x 100. %E = 1%

5 Classificatin f Matter Chemistry is the study f matter Matter anything that has mass and takes up space Matter exists in states Slid rigid, fixed shape and vlume Liquid definite vlume, takes the shape f the cntainer Gas n fixed vlume r shape, very cmpressible Mst matter exists as mixtures Example: wd, wine Hmgeneus mixtures Visibly indistinguishable parts Called slutins Example: air, brass, salt water Hetergeneus mixtures Visibly distinguishable parts Example: sand in water, il & water Can be separated int pure substances thrugh physical changes Physical changes d nt change the chemical cmpsitin f the matter Ways t separate mixtures Distillatin separatin by biling pint Filtratin separatin methd used with a slid & liquid mixture where a barrier blcks slid particles frm passing thrugh Chrmatgraphy a series f methds that emply a system with tw phases(states f matter) Mbile phase (liquid r gas) Statinary phase (slid) Types f Chrmatgraphy Paper Chrmatgraphy Gas Chrmatgraphy HPLC Chrmatgraphy Pure substances Matter made u f nly ne type f element r cmpund Cmpund substance with cnstant cmpsitin that can be brken dwn int elements by chemical means Elements a substance that cannt be decmpsed int simpler substances by chemical r physical means Atms the mst basic unit f matter Prtn psitively charged particle Neutrn neutral particle Electrn negatively charged particle 5

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