Photovoltaic cell and module physics and technology. Vitezslav Benda, Prof Czech Technical University in Prague

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1 Photovoltaic cell and module physics and technology Vitezslav Benda, Prof Czech Technical University in Prague 1

2 Outlines Photovoltaic Effect Photovoltaic cell structure and characteristics Photovoltaic cell construction and technology PV modules construction and technology Summary 2

3 Solar energy TW Photovoltaics Direct transformation energy of solar irradiation into electricity

4 1. Light absorption in materials and excess carrier generation Photon energy hν = hc/λ (h is the Planck constant) photon momentum 0 Light is absorbed in the material. x Φ(x) is the light intensity Φ ( x) = Φ 0 exp( αx) = Φ 0 exp xl α = α(λ) is the absorption coefficient x L 1 x L = is the so-called absorption length Φ( x) dx = 0.68 Φ( x) dx α Absorption is due to interactions with material particles (electrons and nucleus). f particle energy before interaction was W 1, after photon absorption is W 1 + hν 0 0 interactions with the lattice results in an increase of temperature interactions with free electrons - results also in temperature increase interactions with bonded electrons- the incident light may generate some excess carriers (electron/hole pairs) 4

5 At interaction with photons of energy hν W g are generated and carrier generation increases electron-hole pairs d n G( λ; x) = = α( λ) β ( λ) Φ0( λ)exp λ dt gen ( α( ) x) n = n 0 + Δn, p = p 0 + Δp Excess carriers recombine with the recombination rate τ is so called carrier lifetime R d n = dt rec n = τ n dynamic equilibrium n = p = τg

6 Efficiency of excess carrier generation by solar energy depens on the semiconductor band gap Suitable materials Silicon GaAs CunSe 2 amorphous SiGe CdTe/CdS To obtain a potential difference that may be used as a source of electrical energy, an inhomogeneous structure with internal electric field is necessary.

7 Suitable structures with built-in electric field: p-type Junction Radiation n-type PN junction W c W g W F W v L n SCL L p heterojunction (contact of different materials). PN structures

8 Principles of solar cell function n the illuminated area generated excess carriers diffuse towards the PN junction. The density J PV is created by carriers collected by the built-in electric field region J PV Total generated current density H H n ( λ) = q G( λ; x) dx q dx J sr (0) J sr ( H ) 0 0 τ J sr is surface recombination J PV = J PV ( λ) dλ

9 lluminated PN junction: supperposition of photo-generated current and PN junction (dark) -V characteristic A in dark V OC irradiation V V PV illuminated SC Solar cell -V chacteristic and its importan points V mp V OC

10 mportant solar cell electrical parameters open circuit voltage V OC, short circuit current SC maximum output power V mp mp fill factor FF = V V mp OC mp SC V mp V OC efficiency η = V mp P in mp = V OC P SC in FF All parameters V OC, SC, V mp, mp, FF and η are usually given for standard testing conditions (STC): spectrum AM 1.5 radiation power 1000 W/m 2 cell temperature 25 C.

11 Modelling -V characteristics of a solar cell R s Parallel resistance R p PV D R p V R L Series resistance R S PN junction -V characteristics J 01 = n 2 i D q L n n 1 p p0 J + qv j = J 01 exp 1 + ς1kt Dp 1 qni d J 02 = L n τ p n0 sc J 02 qv j exp ς 2kT 1 ς1 2 2 ς 2 1 Output cell voltage V = V j - R s A - total cell area A ill illuminated cell area V R + V + R s s = Aill J PV AJ q AJ q kt kt 01 exp 1 02 exp 1 ς1 ς 2 V + R R p s

12 nfluence of temperature For a high R p 01 ~ n 2 i = Consequently BT 3 V OC kt q W exp kt V OC T < 0 For silicon cells the decrease of V OC is about 0.4%/K FF T < 0 η < 0 T g ln Both fill factor and efficiency decrease with temperature η At silicon cells 0.5% K η T 1 1 PV 01 (A) temperature ( C) V (V) 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 65 C 75 C 85 C 95 C R s increases with increasing temperature R p decreases with increasing temperature

13 The resistances R s and R p influences the cell efficiency At a constant irradiance

14 PV cell (module) with a low R s the efficiency increases with irradiance PV cell (module) with a high R s The efficiency decreases with increasing irradiance

15 To maximise current density J PV it is necessary maximise generation rate G minimise losses losses optical recombination electrical reflection shadowing not absorbed radiation emitter region base region surface series resistance parallel resistance 15

16 Optimising cell thickness and PN junction depth The photo-current density J PV consists from carriers collected by the electric field in the space charge region of the PN junction, i.e. from carriers generated in a distance of about diffusion length from the PN junction. The PN junction depth x j should be less than 0.5 μm (0.2 µm is desirable). To decrease recombination, defects should be passivated

17 Optical losses Surface texturing f the surface has a pyramidal structure it is possible to decrease reflection on about one third of that on a plane surface Antireflection coating Both principles (surface texturing and antireflection coating) can be combined to minimise losses by surface reflection 17

18 Electrical losses Series resistance R s influences strongly solar cells efficiency Series resistance R s consists of: R 1 contact metal-semiconductor on the back surface R 2 base semiconductor material R 3 lateral emitter resistance between two contact grid fingers R 4 contact metal-semiconductor on the grid fingers R 5 resistance of the grid finger R 6 resistance of the collector bus R R = Si H / 3 2 ρ ~ ρ N x ρ R Ml 5 = 3bh R 6 ~ j d ρml hb B B A 18

19 Two types of band structure -direct (GaAs like) -undirect (Si like) Basic types of solar cells: Crystalline silicon cells Thin film cells

20 Preparing semicondutor silicon SiO 2 + C Si + CO 2 Si(s) + 3HCl = HSiCl 3 + H 2 99% HSiCl 3 + H 2 = Si(s) + 3HCl

21 PV cells and modules from crystalline silicon (c-si) PV cells are realised from crystalline silicon wafers of thickness 0,15 0,25 mm and sides of mm c-si mono (37 %) Kerfs losses about 40% c-si multi (50 %)

22 Standard mass production (c-si cells) starting P-type wafers chemical surface texturing phosphorous diffusion SiN(H) antireflection surface coating and passivation contact grid realised by the screen print technique contact firing edge grinding cell measuring and sorting mono-crystalline η 17% multi-crystalline η 16% The technology limit is η 19%

23 ncreasing cell efficiency Selective emitter Back contact cells Hetero junction cells (HT)

24 A single solar cell ~0.5 V, about 30 ma/cm 2 For practical use it is necessary connect cells in series to obtain a source of higher voltage and in parallel to obtain a higher current Module should have an environmental resistance Solar cell Module lifetime > 20 years PV module Minimising optical losses PV field

25 Cell connection in parallel R s R s R s R s R p R p R p R p Optimum situation: all cells have the same V MP f characteristics of individual cells in parallel differ, efficiency decreases (A) ,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 V (V) 25

26 Cells in series.. the same current flows through all cells voltage does sums R s R s R s R s R p R p R p R p Simplified module model Optimum situation: all cells have the same MP f characteristics of individual cells in series differ, efficiency decreases = PV V + R V R + ' ' s s 01 exp q 1 02 exp q 1 m 1 kt m 2kT ς ς V ' + Rs R sh 26

27 PV c-si module technology soldering back covering foil (tedlar) EVA hardened glass 19

28 Bypass diodes

29 Module parameters open circuit voltage V OC, short circuit current SC maximum output power V mp mp fill factor FF = V V mp OC mp SC efficiency η = Vmp P in mp V = OC STC (25 C, 1kW/m 2, AM 1,5) Real operating temperature P SC in FF T = T + c a r thca G ab r thca = r r thcaf thcaf r + r thcab thcab r thcab db = λ b + 1 h b r thcaf d f = λ f + 1 h f NOCT (Nominal Operating Conditions Temperature) Ambient temperature 20 C, 800 W/m 2, wind 1 m/s

30 Basic types of solar cells: Crystalline silicon cells Thin film cells Suitable materials Basic problem: cost... CunSe 2 /CdS amorphous silicon amorphous SiGe CdTe/CdS

31 Thin film solar cells CS CdTe/CdS Amorphous Si Market share: 1.5% 5.7% 4.7% 31

32 Amorphous silicon solar cells TCO: SnO 2 TO (indium-tin oxide) ZnO 600nm 1% <12% substrate TCO Light trapping TCO Ag or Al contact 32

33 Plasma enhanced CVD (PECVD) RF electrode and substrate create the capacitor structure. n this space the plasma and incorporated deposition of material on substrate takes place deposition of silicon nitride 3SiH 4 + 3NH 3 Si 3 N H 2 deposition polysilicon layers SiH 4 Si + 2H 2. 30

34 The deposited layer structure depends on the gas composition and substrate temperature C dilution ratio rh = ([H2] + [SiH4])/[SiH4]. rh < 30, amorphous silicon growth rh > 45, crystalline layers are formed 34

35 Thin film solar cell technology Amorphous (microcrystalline) silicon solar cells transparent substrate (glass) TCO a-si:h p+ layer (20-30 nm) a-si:h intrinsic ( 250 nm) a-si:h n+ layer (20 nm) TCO (diffusion barrier) Ag or Al SiH 4, H 2, B 2 H 6, PH 3, GeH 4, etc 31

36 Tandem cells W g1 > W g2 irradiation 36

37 Thin-film modules on glass substrates TCO glass Back surface is laminated with EVA and suitable covering sheet (glass, tedlar)

38 Market share development

39 PV module cost development Reduction of silicon cost USD/kg USD/kg USD/kg Reduction of C-Si module cost Thin-film modules are not cheaper than modules from crystalline silicon (yet)

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