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1 The effect of dried distillers graions particle size on volume and alkalizing agents on ph and acceptability in dried distillers grains baked products by Jill Kathleen Abbott A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Home Economics Montana State University Copyright by Jill Kathleen Abbott (1986) Abstract: The addition of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) to baked products containing DDG has shown an increase in product ph and volume to the standard product level in some products. Those products remaining with low volumes may have been the result of particle size of the DDG. Additionally, the extra sodium was considered a concern to those with hypertension. The sieving of ten bourbon DDG samples showed significant differences in particle size distributions (P<0.05). DDG sieve fractions in the ground and unground form were baked in quick breads and yeast breads at the 36% level and 33% level respectively. Four of the DDG samples were incorporated at these levels into quick and yeast breads in the unfractionated form both ground and unground. No significant difference was found among baked product volumes due to particle size distribution, sieve fraction size, or grinding of the DDG. Oatmeal muffins and yeast rolls containing 36% DDG and 33% DDG respectively in the ground and un ground form were rated in a consumer taste panel. Consumers found products with DDG acceptable whether the DDG was ground or not. Grinding or milling of the DDG may not be necessary to improve baking properties or to be acceptable by consumers. Titration of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) against a DDG-distilled water slurry caused ph to rise only after excessive amounts of CaCOg had been added. The use of CaCOg in quick breads did not result in an acceptable final product. Four quick breads and four yeast breads were judged by a trained taste panel containing either full NaCl, reduced NaCl1 no salt, or KCl substitute. The products with KCl salt were unacceptable to panelists. The other three were similar in ratings and in preference and so were included in a consumer taste panel along with a standard bread with no DDG. The product with full NaCl was rated significantly lower than the other three products (P<0.05). Consumers may prefer DDG baked products containing reduced salt levels, particularly if extra sodium was added in the form of a neutralizing agent to the formula.

2 THE EFFECT OF DRIED DISTILLERS GRAINS PARTICLE SIZE ON VOLUME AND OF ALKALIZING AGENTS ON PH AND ACCEPTABILITY IN DRIED DISTILLERS GRAINS BAKED PRODUCTS by J i l l K athleen Abbott I A th e s is subm itted in p a r t i a l fu lf illm e n t of th e requirem ents fo r th e degree of M aster of Science \ in Home Economics MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana May 1986

3 MAIN LiBi A/37& 7) M3 i i APPROVAL o f a th e s is subm itted by J i l l K athleen Abbott This th e s is has been read by each member of the th e s is com m ittee and has been fo u n d to be s a t i s f a c t o r y r e g a r d in g c o n te n t, E n g lish usage, fo rm at, c ita tio n s, b ib lio g ra p h ic s ty le, and co n sisten cy, and i s ready fo r subm ission to the College o f G raduate S tu d ies. Date f t - A J - / / C h a ir p e r s o n,g r a d u a te C om m ittee Approved fo r Date (] / ^ ' 1U./ HeaS, Major Department Approved fo r the I Date ^ ^ / y / 'f <P^ G raduate Dean

4 i l l STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r a m a s te r 's d e g re e a t M ontana S t a t e U n iv e r s ity, I a g re e t h a t th e L ib ra r y s h a l l make i t a v a i l a b l e to b o rro w e rs under r u le s of the L ibrary. B rie f q u o ta tio n s from th is th e s is a re allo w ab le w ith o u t s p e c ia l perm issio n, provided th a t a c c u ra te acknowledgment of source i s made. P erm ission fo r e x ten siv e q u o ta tio n from or re p ro d u c tio n o f. t h i s th e s is may be granted by my m ajor p ro fe sso r, or in h er absence, by the D irecto r of L ib ra r ie s when, in th e opinion o f e ith e r, th e proposed use of the m a te ria l i s fo r s c h o la rly purposes. Any copying or use of the m a t e r i a l in t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a in s h a l l n o t be a llo w e d w ith o u t my w ritte n perm ission. S ig n atu re 'ML & Ikhlfr&bt' Date

5 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I w ish to ex p ress s in c e re a p p re c ia tio n to Dr. Jacquelynn O'Palka, my m ajor p ro fe sso r, f o r her contin u al p ro fe ssio n a l advice and guidance d u rin g my g ra d u a te program. A s p e c ia l th a n k s i s e x te n d e d to Dr. C harles McGuire, my graduate com m ittee member, fo r p ro v id in g knowledge and d ire c tio n on my re searc h p ro je c t. I would a lso lik e to thank Dr. R osem ary Newman f o r h e r s u p p o rt and f o r s e r v in g on my co m m ittee. E x c e p tio n a l g r a t i t u d e i s e x p re s s e d to L a rry B lackw ood f o r h i s s t a t i s t i c a l e x p e rtis e, along w ith Dr. R ichard Lund. Genuine thanks i s g iv e n to Dr. L a rry Jackso n and to Dr. Bob B a r t e l t f o r t h e i r p a tie n c e in pro v id in g knowledge and h elp w ith th e l i p i d w ork A note of thanks goes to Dr. S te p h a n C u ste r f o r h i s a id i n th e use o f s ie v e s. I w ish to thank Don B ateson f o r h is c o n sid erate a s s is ta n c e w ith com puters, and fo r h is s p e c ia l frie n d sh ip. P a rtic u la r a p p re c ia tio n i s f e l t f o r P e tr e a H o fer f o r h e r c h e m ic a l a n a ly s e s w ork and f o r h e r generous guidance, and to Kim Heintzman fo r sh arin g h e r in s p ir a tio n and frie n d s h ip. My p a re n ts, Floyd and V irg in ia Abbott deserve my deepest a p p re c ia tio n f o r always being th e re w ith lo v e, su p p o rt and confidence.

6 V TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES... LIST OF FIG U R ES.... ABSTRACT...'... INTRODUCTION v i i i xi x ii I REVIEW OF LITERATURE DDG U tiliz a tio n... 4 Sources of DDG... 4 N u tritio n a l Value of DDG.... '...;... 5 Products Form ulated With DDG... 7 O b jectiv es of R e s e a r c h MATERIALS AND METHODS D i s t i l l e r s ' D ried G rains P a r tic le Size D e te rm in a tio n DDG G rinding Chemical A nalysis of DDG T itr a tio n of A lk alizin g Agents Product P rep a ra tio n Yeast B read s Quick Breads P hysical A nalysis o f Baked P roducts 24 Volume p H...24 Percent Color R eflectan ce Dough S t a b i l i t y O rg anoleptic E v a lu a tio n Trained T aste Panel Consumer P a n e l s RESULTS AND DISCUSSION P a r tic le S ize D i s t r i b u t i o n... ; 28 Chemical A nalysis o f DDG Proxim ate A nalysis 29 L ip id Com position Batch v a r i a b i l i t y E ffe c ts o f fro zen s t o r a g e... 38

7 VX TABLE OF CONTENTS - c o n tin u e d T itr a tio n of A lk a liz in g A g e n ts Sodium b icarb o n ate t i t r a t i o n Calcium carbonate t i t r a t i o n P a r tic le S ize E ffe c t on V o lu m e Quick B r e a d s Quick breads w ith 36% DDG sample K Quick breads w ith 5% and 15% DDG sample K Quick breads w ith 36% DDG sam ples A, B, and I Yeast B reads Yeast breads w ith 33% DDG sample K Yeast b re a d s w ith 33% DDG sam ples A, Bf and I Volume and P a r tic le S ize D is trib u tio n Sodium A djustm ents in Product Formulas Quick b r e a d s Yeast b r e a d s P ercen t Color R eflectan ce Color R eflectan ce in DDG Samples DDG sample K f r a c t i o n s DDG samples A, Bf and I Color R eflectance in Quick Breads Oatmeal m u ffins w ith DDG sample K f r a c t i o n s Oatmeal m uffins w ith DDG sam ples Af Bf and I... Oatmeal m uffins w ith s a l t v a r ia tio n s Color R eflectan ce in Yeast Breads Yeast r o l l s w ith DDG sample K f r a c t i o n s Yeast r o l l s w ith 33% DDG sam ples Af Bf and I... Yeast r o l l s w ith s a l t v a r i a t i o n s Dough S t a b i l i t y % DDGf 70% Bread F l o u r S a lt V a ria tio n s and 30% DDGf 70% Bread Flour O rg anoleptic E v a lu a tio n P a r tic le S ize E f f e c t Consumer ta s te p an el, quick breads Consumer ta s te panel, y e ast breads S a lt V a r i a t i o n s Trained ta s t e p a n el, quick b r e a d s Trained ta s te p an el, y e ast breads Consumer ta s te p a n el, quick breads Consumer ta s te p an el, y e a st breads C o n c lu sio n s... ^ REFERENCES CITED I Page

8 v i i TABLE OF CONTENTS - c o n tin u e d Page APPENDICES Appendix A Taste Panel R ecording S heets Appendix B T itr a tio n Curves and Quick Breads U sing Calcium Carbonate 89

9 v i i i LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Yeast r o l l fo rm u latio n s w ith NaHCOg v a r ia tio n s Yeast r o l l fo rm u latio n s w ith s a l t v a r i a t i o n s Oatmeal m uffin fo rm u latio n s w ith NaHCOg v a r ia tio n s Oaftmeal m uffin fo rm u latio n s With a lk a liz in g agent v a r i a t i o n s Oatmeal m uffin fo rm u latio n s w ith s a l t v a r ia tio n s P a r tic le size com position, of bourbon DDG A n aly sis o f DDG s a m p le s T ria c y lg ly c e ro l q u a lity changes i n r e la tiv e percentage of f a t t y acid com position of DDG samples B-3 and K Free f a t t y a c id q u a lity changes i n r e la tiv e p ercentage of f a t t y acid com position of DDG sam ples in B-3 and K L evels of NaHCOg added to o b ta in stan d ard product ph in DDG baked p r o d u c t s... %2 11 The e f f e c t of sie v e f r a c tio n and g rin d in g on volume and ph i n oatm eal m uffins c o n tain in g 36% DDG sample K Volumes of oatm eal m uffins u t i l i z i n g 5% and 15% DDG sample K ground and ung r o u n d Volume and ph of oatm eal m uffins u t i l i z i n g DDG samples A, B, and I a t th e 36% replacem ent le v e l ground and un g r o u n d... ^7 14 The e f f e c t of sie v e f r a c tio n and g rin d in g on volume and ph i n y e a s t r o l l co n tain in g 33% DDG sample K Volume and ph of y e a st r o l l s u t i l i z i n g 33% DDG sam ples A, B, and I, ground and u n g ro u n d Oatmeal m uffin volumes and p a r t i c l e s iz e d is tr ib u tio n in siev e f r a c tio n s 16 and 80 fo r DDG samples A,B,I, and K 50

10 i x L IS T OF TABLES - c o n tin u e d T a b le Page 17 Y east r o l l volumes and p a r tic le s iz e d is tr ib u tio n in siev e f r a c tio n s 16 and 80 fo r DDG samples A,B, I and K Volume and ph in DDG oatm eal m u ffin s w ith s a l t v a r i a t i o n s Volume and ph in DDG y e a s t r o l l s w ith s a l t v a r ia tio n s P ercent co lo r re fle c ta n c e of DDG sample K f r a c tio n s Percent co lo r re fle c ta n c e of DDG samples A1 B, and I P ercent color re fle c ta n c e of oatmeal m uffins c o n tain in g 36% DDG sample K f r a c t i o n s P ercen t co lo r re fle c ta n c e of oatmeal m uffins c o n tain in g 36% A8 B8 and I DDG samples unground and ground Percent co lo r re fle c ta n c e of oatmeal m uffins c o n tain in g DDG sample K w ith s a l t v a r ia tio n s Percent co lo r re fle c ta n c e of y e a st r o l l s c o n tain in g 33% DDG sample K f r a c t i o n s P ercent co lo r re fle c ta n c e of y e a st r o l l s c o n tain in g 33% DDG samples A8 B8 and I 8 un ground and g r o u n d P ercen t co lo r re fle c ta n c e of y e a st r o l l s c o n tain in g 33% DDG sample K and fo u r s a l t v a r i a t i o n s F arinograph v a lu es fo r y e a st r o l l dough components o f 70% bread flo u r and 30% DDG a t v a rio u s p a r tic le s iz e s F arin o g rap h 8 DDG com position, and baked product v a lu es o f y e a s t r o l l dough components u t i l i z i n g DDG sample K of f iv e p a r tic le s iz e s Farinograph v a lu es f o r y e a s t r o l l dough components of th re e s a l t types and l e v e l s R esu lts of covariance a n a ly s is of m uffins r a tin g type sex and age i n t e r a c t i o n s R esu lts of covariance a n a ly s is o f y e a s t r o l l s r a tin g type, sex and age i n t e r a c t i o n s... 66

11 X L IST OF TABLES - c o n tin u e d T a b le P age 33 A nalysis o f v arian ce r e s u l t s o f p a ire d com parison t e s t s of oatm eal m uffins w ith DDG and s a l t v a r ia tio n s Tukey*s m u ltip le comparison t e s t r e s u l t s o f p a ire d comparison t e s t s of oatm eal m u ffin s with. DDG and s a l t v a r i a t i o n s... ^7 35 Hedonic r a tin g s of oatm eal m uffins c o n tain in g varying types and le v e ls o f s a l t Judge e f f e c t on hedonic r a tin g s of oatm eal m uffins c o n tain in g v ary in g ty p es and le v e ls o f s a l t A nalysis of v a ria n ce r e s u l t s of Schfeffe 's model f o r p a ire d comparison t e s t s o f y e a st r o l l s w ith DDG and s a l t v a r i a t i o n s Hedonic r a tin g s o f y e a st r o l l s c o n tain in g v ary in g ty p es and le v e ls of s a l t Judge e f f e c t on hedonic ra tin g s o f y e a st r o l l s c o n tain in g v ary in g ty pes and le v e ls of s a l t R esu lts o f covariance a n a ly s is o f m uffins r a tin g ty p e, sex and age i n t e r a c t i o n s Mean r a tin g s o f oatmeal m uffins w ith s a l t v a r ia tio n s by consumer ta s te p a n e lis ts R esu lts o f covariance a n a ly s is o f y e a st r o l l s r a tin g type, sex and age i n t e r a c t i o n s... 7^ 43 Mean ra tin g s o f y e a st r o l l s w ith s a l t v a r ia tio n s by consumer ta s te p a n e l i s t s Volume and ph of oatmeal m uffins c o n tain in g v ary in g le v e ls of NaHCOg and CaCOg... 93

12 XL LIST OF FIGURES F igure I Q u a n tita tiv e p ercen tag es o f l i p i d f r a c tio n s of DDG Page 33 2 T ria c y lg ly c e ro l q u a lity changes in r e la tiv e percentage of f a t t y acid com position o f DDQ samples B, K and I 35 3 Free f a tty a c id q u a lity changes i n r e la tiv e p ercentage of f a tty acid com position o f DDG samples B, K and I T itr a tio n of baking soda (NaHCOg) a g a in s t DDG 41 5 T itr a tio n of calcium carbonate (CaCOg) in dry gram w eights a g a in s t 112 g DDG sample K i n 400 ml room tem perature d i s t i l l e d w ater T itr a tio n o f calcium carbonate (CaCOo) in dry gram w eights a g a in s t 20 g DDG sample D i n d i s t i l l e d w ater 91 7 T itr a tio n o f.in calcium carbonate (CaCOg) a g a in s t 50 g DDG sample K i n 200 ml d i s t i l l e d w ater... 92

13 x i i ABSTRACT The a d d itio n o f sodium b ic a r b o n a te (NaHCOg) to baked p ro d u c ts c o n tain in g DDG has shown an in c re a s e in product ph and volume to the stan d a rd product le v e l in some products. Those products rem aining w ith low v o lu m es may have been th e r e s u l t o f p a r t i c l e s iz e o f th e DDG. A d d itio n a lly, the e x tra sodium was considered a concern to those w ith h y p e rte n s io n. The s ie v in g o f te n bourbon DDG sa m p le s showed s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s in p a r tic le s iz e d is tr ib u tio n s (P<0.05). DDG s ie v e f r a c t i o n s i n th e ground and ung ro u n d form w ere baked i n q u ic k b re a d s and y e a s t b re a d s a t th e 3.6% l e v e l and 33% l e v e l r e s p e c tiv e ly. Four of the DDG sam ples w ere in c o rp o ra te d a t th ese le v e ls in to quick and y e a st breads i n th e u n fra c tio n a te d form both ground and unground. No s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e was found among baked product volumes due to p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n, s ie v e f r a c t i o n s i z e, or g r in d in g o f th e DDG. Oatmeal m u ffin s and y e a s t r o l l s co n tain in g 36% DDG and 33% DDG re s p e c tiv e ly in th e ground and un ground form w ere ra te d i n a consumer ta s te panel. Consumers found p ro d u cts w ith DDG a cceptab le w hether the DDG was ground o r n o t. G rin d in g o r m i l l i n g o f th e DDG may n o t be n e c e s s a ry to im prove b a k in g p r o p e r t i e s or to be a c c e p ta b le by consum ers. T i t r a t i o n o f c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te (CaCOg) a g a in s t a D D G -distilled w ater s lu rry caused ph to r is e only a f te r ex cessiv e amounts of CaCOg had been added. The use of CaCOg in q u ic k b re a d s d id n o t r e s u l t i n an a c c e p ta b le f i n a l p ro d u c t. Four q u ic k b re a d s and f o u r y e a s t b re a d s w ere ju d g e d by a t r a i n e d t a s t e p a n e l c o n ta in in g e i t h e r f u l l NaCl, reduced NaCl, no s a l t, or KCl s u b s titu te. The p roducts w ith KCl s a l t w ere u n a c c e p ta b le to p a n e l i s t s. The o th e r th r e e w ere s i m i l a r i n r a t i n g s and in p r e f e r e n c e and so w ere in c lu d e d i n a consum er t a s t e panel along w ith a stan d ard bread w ith no DDG. The product w ith f u l l NaCl w as r a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y lo w e r th a n th e o th e r th r e e p ro d u c ts (P<0.05). Consumers may p re fe r DDG baked pro d u cts c o n tain in g reduced s a l t le v e ls, p a r tic u la r ly i f e x tra sodium was added i n th e form of a n e u tra liz in g agent to th e form ula.

14 I INTRODUCTION The m ain b y -p ro d u c ts o f th e b e v erag e a lc o h o l i n d u s t r i e s and o f com m ercial e th a n o l p ro d u c tio n a r e d i s t i l l e r s ' d r ie d g r a in s (DDG) o r b re w e rs ' s p e n t g r a in s (BSG). These b y -p ro d u c ts c o n s t i t u t e a m a jo r d isp o sa l problem. The m a jo rity of DDG and BSG are used i n anim al feed w ith the rem ainder tr e a te d as re fu se. Corn or b arley are th e prim ary feed sto ck s used fo r fu e l alcohol p roduction, although w heat may be used, depending on th e re g io n of th e U n ite d S t a t e s. The b re w in g in d u s tr y u s e s b a rle y w h ile th e liq u o r d i s t i l l e r s use a g ra in or f r u i t m ixture. Bourbon, one of the m ajor ty p e s o f w hisky p ro d u ced i n th e U.S. (P ackow sk i, I 963) m ust c o n ta in a t l e a s t 51 p e rc e n t c o rn in c o m b in a tio n w ith ry e and b a rle y m a lt (Schoeneman, e t a l. 1971). During th e fe rm e n ta tio n of th ese g ra in s, most o f th e carbohydrate i s hydrolyzed from the g ra in s, le a v in g behind a s o lid w et re sid u e (the "spent" g ra in ). These re s id u e s a re washed and d rie d i n a g ra in dryer to produce DDG o r BSG. N u t r i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f DDG h a s shown t h a t durin g th e fe rm e n ta tio n p rocess, sta rc h re d u c tio n r e s u l t s i n n early a th re e fo ld co n cen tra tio n of p ro te in, f a t, f ib e r and ash. Research has i n d i c a t e d t h a t d i e t a r y f i b e r i n hum ans may h e lp to p re v e n t such d i s e a s e s a s d i v e r t i c u l o s i s, c o l o n c a n c e r, h e m o r r h o i d s, a r t e r i o s c l e r o s i s, v a r ic o s e v e in s, and a p p e n d i c i t i s ( B u r k itt and

15 2 Trow e l l, 1975). T herefore, re se a rc h e rs have experim ented w ith th e use of DDG in human food p ro d u c ts,to in c re a se p ro te in and f ib e r content. Some success has been achieved u sin g DDG in ch em ically leavened and y e a s t le a v e n e d baked p ro d u c ts a t low f lo u r re p la c e m e n t l e v e l s, h o w ev er, above 5 p e rc e n t re p la c e m e n t, c o lo r, f la v o r, volum e and t e x t u r e have been m ajo r p ro b le m s. P a r t o f th e d i f f i c u l t y i s due to th e a c i d i c n a tu r e o f th e DDG, w ith ph's a s low as 4.1. The use of hig h er than norm al le v e ls of sodium b icarb o n ate (baking soda, NaHCOg) i n q u ic k b re a d s and th e a d d itio n o f NaHCOg to y e a s t b re a d s to n e u tra liz e the a c id ic DDG b a tte r s and doughs has p a r tia lly helped to in c r e a s e l o a f volum e and to im p ro v e th e t e x t u r e s and f l a v o r s. High le v e ls of sodium b icarb o n ate may not be d e s ira b le however, because i n some p e o p le sodium c o n tr ib u te s to th e d evelo p m en t o f h y p e rte n s io n (U.S. D ept, o f H e a lth and Human S e r v ic e s, 1980). S u b s t i t u t i n g o th e r a lk a liz in g agen ts such as calcium and potassium s a l t s o r d ecreasin g s a l t le v e ls would reduce the in c re a se d sodium le v e ls i n th ese products and i n th e case of c a lc iu m, may c o n tr ib u te an a d d i t i o n a l im p o rta n t n u tr ie n t. A n a ly s is h a s shown t h a t th e h ig h a c i d i t y o f th e DDG i s n o t th e o n ly f a c t o r c o n tr ib u tin g to low volum e. G lu te n d ev elo p m en t i s e s s e n tia l in y e a st breads, and i s very im p o rtan t i n q u ick breads fo r optim um volum e. F ib e r i n th e dough o r b a t t e r may c u t th e g lu te n s tr a n d s and i n t e r f e r e w ith i t s d ev elo p m en t. P a r t i c l e s i z e i n DDG v a r i e s w id e ly from c o a r s e, a lm o s t i n t a c t g r a in s to f i n e l y ground f l o u r - s i z e p a r t i c l e s. What e f f e c t th e p a r t i c l e s iz e ra n g e h a s on product q u a lity i s unknown.

16 3 I n d u s tr y has c r e a te d a s u r p lu s o f DDG. T h is p r e s e n ts an e c o lo g i c a l c o n cern and c o n tr ib u te s to i t s low c o s t. I t s a p p a re n t human n u tr itio n a l value, p a r tic u la r ly as a f ib e r source has promoted the e x p erim en tatio n w ith DDG in human food products. To be accep tab le to th e consumer, the fu n c tio n a l q u a litie s o f DDG such as volume must be im proved.

17 REVIEW OF LITERATURE DDG U tiliz a tio n At th e p re sen t tim e, th e m ajor p o rtio n o f DDG and BSG a re used as a n im a l fe e d a s a f i b e r and p r o te in s o u rc e f o r b o th ru m in a n ts and n o n ru m in a n ts, such as sw in e (Newman and G ras, 1983). S m a lle r q u a n t i t i e s o f s p e n t g r a in a re u sed i n mushroom com post p ro d u c tio n b ecau se o f i t s h ig h p r o t e i n c o n te n t (T ow nsley e t a l. 1979). The n u tr i tio n a l value of DDG and BSG h as le a d to experim en tal te s t in g of both products in th e human food supply. Both have been in c o rp o ra te d i n t o v a r io u s p ro d u c ts, in c lu d in g : y e a s t b re a d s, q u ic k b re a d s, m u ffin s, c a k e s, c o o k ie s, sn ack fo o d, p a s ta, c e r e a l s, g r a n o la and b le n d ed fo o d s (T o w n sley, 1979, F in le y, e t a l., 1976, Dawson, e t a l., 1984, W all e t a l. I 984). Sources o f DDG D ried d i s t i l l e r s g r a in s (DDG) a re th e m a jo r b y -p ro d u c t of th e l i q u o r d i s t i l l i n g and f u e l a lc o h o l i n d u s t r i e s, w h ile b re w e rs s p e n t g r a in s (BSG) a re th e m ain b y -p ro d u c ts o f th e b rew in g in d u s tr y. The p ro p e rtie s o f DDG depend on th e p a r tic u la r p ro cessin g tech n iq u es and th e g r a in m ix tu re used ( S a t t e r l e e, I 976). In th e U n ite d S t a t e s, th e c h o ic e o f g r a in and p r o c e s s in g m ethods depends on each d i s t i l l e r s ' p r e f e r e n c e a s to th e d e s i r e d p r o d u c t w i t h i n g o v e r n m e n ta l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s. W h isk ies a r e a b le n d o f c o rn, ry e, m a lte d b a rle y and so m etim es w h eat. Most bourbon w hisky d i s t i l l e r s choose

18 5 p r o p o r tio n s o f 60% c o rn, 28% ry e, and.12% b a r le y m a lt. B eer i s made from b a rle y, w h ile fu e l alcohol may be processed from b arley or corn or o c c a s io n a lly w h eat, d epen d in g on g r a in a v a i l a b i l i t y and m a rk e t p ric e. P ro cessin g methods vary in h e a tin g and d rying te m p eratu res used, a c i d i t y l e v e l s, and c o n ta m in a n ts. F u el a lc o h o l DDG may n o t have a s high a m ic ro b io lo g ical q u a lity as b r e w e r /d is tille r d rie d g ra in s due to s trin g e n t p ro cessin g requirem ents s in c e th e fe rm e n te d l i q u i d i s n o t in tended fo r human consum ptioh (Townsley, 1974, Dawson e t a l. 1984). The v a rio u s in d u s tr ie s also produce a wide v a r ia tio n in DDG co lo r, ph, m o is tu r e l e v e l and n u t r i t i o n a l c o n te n t (T sen e t a l. 1982, T ow nsley, 1979). N u tritio n a l Value o f DDG F ib e r c o n te n t o f DDG r e f e r s to th e a c id d e te r g e n t o r n e u t r a l d e te r g e n t f i b e r d ep en d in g on a n a l y s i s m ethod chosen. N e u tra l d e te rg e n t f ib e r re p re s e n ts more of the crude f ib e r and so i s g e n e ra lly considered to be more re p re s e n ta tiv e of t o ta l d ie ta ry f ib e r (V etter, 1984). A n a ly s is o f DDG h a s shown t h a t th e f i b e r c o n te n t ra n g e s b e tw een 29 and 77 p e r c e n t (P om eranz, e t a l P r e n tic e and D A ppolonia, 1977, F in le y and Hanamoto, 1980, R anhotra e t a l. 1982). P r o t e i n c o n t e n t v a r i e s d e p e n d in g on t h e g r a i n u s e d i n p ro cessin g, and on the p ro cessin g methods. During p ro te in a n a ly s is, in c o m p le te r e c o v e r i e s o f am ino a c id s o c c u r re d c a u s in g lo w e r " tru e " p ro te in v a lu e s in corn based DDG acco rd in g to Ranhotra e t a l. (1982). T h e ir sam p les w ere fo u n d to c o n ta in an a v e ra g e o f 27.5% p r o t e i n (N X

19 6 6.25), An a l l m ilo sam p le c o n ta in e d 34.9/6 p r o te in. R an h o tra e t a l. ( 1982) suggested th a t n o n p ro tein nitrogenous compounds, p rim a rily from y e ast, may have in c re ase d th e to ta l n itro g e n content r e s u ltin g i n an o v e re stim a tio n of the p ro te in content. These compounds may a lso have ch used lo w e r th a n s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o t e i n e f f i c i e n c y r a t i o s (PER). The am ount o f y e a s t (and o th e r p ro d u c ts from th e tr u b, w hich i s a p r e c i p i t a t e, c o n s is tin g m a in ly o f p r o t e i n, p h e n o lic com pounds, and l i p i d s t h a t i s added to s p e n t g r a in f o r d is p o s a l) i n th e DDG v a r ie s d ep en d in g on p r o c e s s in g m ethods ( P r e n tic e and D 'A ppolonia, 1977, F in le y and Hanamoto, 1980). R a ts fe d 10% p r o t e i n d i e t s had p o o r p r o te in d i g e s t i b i l i t i e s (75.6%) when co rn d i s t i l l e r s g r a in s (CDG) s u p p lie d th e p r o te in. T his was th o u g h t to be due to th e h ig h f i b e r c o n te n t o f th e d i e t s. D i g e s t i b i l i t i e s w ere a s h ig h a s 93% when o th e r p r o te in s su ch as soy flo u r and non f a t dry m ilk w ere added to th e d ie t. CDG had low PERs but n o t a s low as co rn m eal p r o te in. (W all e t a l. 1984). O th e r m ixed g ra in BSG have been re p o rte d to contain over 25% p ro te in (Pomeranz e t a l. 1976, P re n tic e and D A ppolonia, 1977, K is se ll and P re n tic e, 1979). On a w eight b a sis, the e s s e n tia l amino acid co n ten t has compared favorably w ith foods such a s whole w heat flo u r d e stin e d fo r s im ila r fo o d u s e s ( P r e n tic e and R efsg u a rd, 1978, P r e n tic e and D'A p p o lo n ia, 1977). Wu e t a l. (1984) fo u n d th e p r o te in c o n te n ts o f h a rd w h eat f e r m e n ta tio n p ro d u c ts to be h ig h e r th a n th o s e p ro d u c ts from co rn, w h ile th e f a t c o n te n t w as lo w e r. S i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n ly s i n e, th re o n in e and is o l e u c i n e w ere o b serv e d fp r w heat d is tille r s * g ra in s compared w ith w heat, which i s d e f ic ie n t i n ly s in e and low i n th reo n in e

20 7 and is o l e u c i n e. F e rm e n ta tio n does n o t seem to im p ro v e n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s i n co rn DOG. W all e t a l. (1984) found c o rn d i s t i l l e r s g r a in s (CDG) to be low in ly s i n e and try p to p h a n but th e l y s i n e l e v e l was s im ila r to th a t o f whole corn p ro te in. In o th e r an aly se s of corn d i s t i l l e r s ' d rie d g ra in s w ith so lu b le s (CDDGS) amino a c id com position was s im ila r to th a t of corn (Wu e t a l. 1981). Ranhotra e t a l. ( 1982) found carb o h y d rates (m ainly s ta rc h e s) l e f t i n th e s p e n t g r a in s a t l e v e l s o f up to 25.3%. F at c o n te n t ra n g e d from 6.3 to 11 i5%. B rew ers s p e n t g r a in s h av e been found, to be low in h ig h ly so lu b le m in erals (ash m easurem ent), such as potassium and low i n B v ita m in s due to le a c h in g o u t d u rin g w o rt p ro d u c tio n and d u rin g d ry in g of th e w et s p e n t g r a in s ( Pom eranz e t a l. I 976). R an h o tra e t a l. ( 1982) how ever, found h ig h l e v e l s o f n u t r i t i o n a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t m in erals such as potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, z in c, copper and chrom ium. High l e v e l s o f some v ita m in s, p a r t i c u l a r l y th ia m in, r ib o f la v in and n ia c in were a lso found. The v a lu es of th ese n u tr ie n ts a re s im ila r to those found in bran f r a c tio n s o f g rain s. P ro d u c ts F orm ulated W ith DDG DDG have been in c o rp o ra te d in a number of food ite m s, e sp e c ia lly baked p ro d u cts in c lu d in g y e a s t b re a d s, q u ic k (c h e m ic a lly le a v e n e d ) b re a d s and c o o k ie s. At l e v e l s above 5%, DDG re p la c e m e n t o f f lo u r s ig n if ic a n tly a l t e r s the co lo r, fla v o r and baking perform ance in th ese p ro d u cts. The h ig h f i b e r c o n te n t o f DDG in c r e a s e s i t s w a te r a b s o r p tio n c a p a c ity ( D reese e t a l. 1982). Work i n o u r la b o r a to r y w ith bourbon v

21 8 DDG showed th a t u n less th e form ula chosen a lre ad y In co rp o rated whole g r a in s, an i n c r e a s e i n a b s o r p tio n w as n e c e s s a ry to a c h ie v e a m ore d e s ira b le product. In q u ick breads, 0.5 ml. of w ater per gram of DDG used was added to su c c e ssfu l fo rm u latio n s. In c o rp o ra tio n o f DDG in baked p ro d u cts has re s u lte d in a darker c o lo r o f th e ite m even a t l e v e l s a s low a s 6% (F in le y and H anam oto, 1980). D egree o f d a rk e n in g depends on th e c o lo r o f th e DDG w hich i s determ ined by the s ta r tin g m a te ria ls and the p ro cessin g methods (Tsen, e t a l. I 982). D if f e r e n c e s i n c o lo r w ere n o te d by t a s t e p a n e l i s t s i n to a s te d b re a d w ith 5% and 10$ DDG l e v e l s, b u t w ere n o t c o n s id e re d o b je c tio n a b le. DDG has been m ore s u c c e s s f u lly in c o r p o r a te d i n q u ic k b re a d s because they are o fte n h ig h ly colored and fla v o re d products. F inely m ille d s p e n t g r a in w as a c c e p ta b le a t 10$ and 15$ f l o u r re p la c e m e n t le v e ls i n m uffins c o n tain in g a h ig h ly pronounced fla v o rin g, component ( P r e n tic e, I 978, B id e t e t a l. I 984a). Bourbon DDG a t a l e v e l o f 40$ w as fo u n d a c c e p ta b le i n a h ig h ly f la v o r e d q u ic k b read ( O1P alk a and B idet, 1986). Tsen e t a l. (1982) found th a t two d if f e r e n t DDG re s u lte d in d if f e r in g a c c e p ta b ilitie s in cookies where flo u r was re p la c e d w ith 15$ and 25$ DDG. H ighly f la v o r e d c o o k ie s (b a r, s p ic e and c h o c o la te c h ip ) w ere a c c e p ta b le by p a n e l i s t s w ith th e DDG, a lth o u g h a v erag e c o o k ie d ia m e te r was re d u c e d. W hite sorghum DDG w as a c c e p ta b le i n m olasses cookies a t flo u r s u b s titu tio n le v e ls up to 50$, and up to 15$ replacem ent was a cceptab le in sugar cookies (Morad e t a l. 1984). Oatmeal cookies w ith 15$ d e fa tte d b arley DDG w ere found e q u ally a c c e p ta b le to c o n tro l oatm eal cookies (Dawson e t a l. 1984), su g g estin g

22 9 t h a t th e f a t c o n te n t o f DDG may have c o n tr ib u te d to th e f la v o r. F u rth er q u a n tita tiv e and q u a lita tiv e a n a ly s is of th is b arley DDG l i p i d show ed t h a t e x te n s iv e h y d r o ly s is and d e c o m p o s itio n o f u n s a tu r a te d f a t t y a c id s occurred durin g DDG p ro cessin g (Dawson e t a l. 1984, E idet e t a l. 1984b). Subsequent work in d ic a te d th a t d eg rad atio n o f n e u tra l l i p i d o c c u r re d th ro u g h o u t p r o c e s s i n g ( o f i n d u s t r i a l e t h a n o l ). T ria c y lg ly c e ro l le v e ls w ere decreased and f r e e f a tty a cid le v e ls w ere in c r e a s e d. d egraded. U n s a tu r a te d f a t t y a c id s, e s p e c i a l l y l i n o l e i c a c id w ere T h is h y d r o ly s is o f t r i a c y l g l y c e r o l s to f r e e f a t t y a c id s (FFA) i s u n d e s ir a b le. The FFA may have com bined w ith th e ch em ical le a v e n in g a g e n t i n th e baked p ro d u c ts w hich may have cau sed soap fo rm atio n, causing some of the o ff fla v o rs in these DDG products. A consum er t a s t e p a n e l found g ra n o la s c o n ta in in g 7.5% b a r le y DDG, d e fa tte d DDG, or the p aren t b arley to be eq u ally a cceptab le (Dawson e t a l. 1984). G ranola c o n ta in s no le a v e n in g a g e n t. B o o k w alter e t a l. (1984) a lso found improved fla v o r in blended foods c o n tain in g CDG from which th e l i p i d had been e x tra c te d. Water washing th e CDG to remove r e s i d u a l s o lu b le s p ro d u ced im p ro v ed f l a v o r r a t i n g s o f th e b lended foods c o n tain in g CDG. Bourbon d i s t i l l e r s o fte n use c a re fu l low tem p eratu re pro cessin g and good s a n ita tio n stan d a rd s which may prev en t l i p i d d eg radatio n in th e r e s u l t a n t DDG. Work i n our la b o r a to r y showed m in im a l l i p i d d eg radatio n in bourbon DDG (O'Palka and E id et, 1986). Sm all amounts o f n e u tra l l i p i d degraded but th e m ajor p o rtio n of l i p i d i n DDG was in the tr i a c y l g ly c e ro l (TAG) form. S m all am ounts o f m o n o acy lg ly c e r o ls (MAG) and d i a c y l g l y c e r id e s (DAG) and f r e e f a t t y a c id s w ere p r e s e n t.

23 10 T h e re fo re, th e l i p i d r a t i o s w ere s i m i l a r to th o s e fo u n d i n i n t a c t c e re a l g r a in s. R ecent w ork i n o u r la b o r a to r y h as shown t h a t consum er t a s t e p a n e ls fo u n d c a r r o t- c o c o n u t b re a d s c o n ta in in g 40$ bourbon DDG and y e a st and nut r o l l s c o n tain in g 33% DDG accep tab le (0*Palka and B idet, 1986). The b re a d s w ere ju d g e d a c c e p ta b le o n ly when th e t y p i c a l l y a c i d i c (ph 4.1) l e v e l s w ere n e u t r a l i z e d w ith in c r e a s e d am ounts o f sodium b ic a r b o n a te i n th e f o r m u la tio n s. W ith o u t ad d ed sodium b icarb o n ate, the a c id ic ph le v e ls caused so u r, unaccep tab le fla v o rs. In c re a sin g the ph to stan d ard c o n tro l le v e ls a lso im proved o th erw ise low l o a f v o lum es w hich h a s been a m a jo r problem w ith DDG i n baked goods. The f in a l a c id ity or a lk a la n ity of a b a tte r or dough a ffe c te d th e p e rfo rm a n c e of p r o te in s. I f to o a c i d i c, low v o lu m es, c lo s e te x tu re s and sour ta s t e s re s u lte d. I f to o a lk a lin e, h ig h e r volumes, c o arse r te x tu re s, and b i t t e r ta s te s re s u lte d. Adding sodium b icarb o n ate to y e a s t and c h e m ic a lly le a v e n e d DDG p roducts b rin g s th e ph to an accep tab le le v e l but m arkedly in c re a se s the sodium co n ten t of the product. This may be u n d e sirab le fo r some consumers sin ce in c re a se d sodium in ta k e i s a sso c ia te d w ith some form s o f h y p e rte n s io n (U.S. D ept, o f H e a lth and Human S e r v ic e s, 1980). Of th e average t o ta l in ta k e of) sodium c h lo rid e (NaCl), 26% i s su p p lied i n th e form o f s a l t from baked goods and m ix es (SC0GS-102, 1979)» O ther a lk a liz in g ag en ts b esid es sodium b icarb o n ate e x is t but many are too expensive, c o n trib u te u n d e sirab le fla v o rs, c o n trib u te more sodium or cause te c h n o lo g ic a l problem s (V etter, 1981).

24 11 S a lt i s needed in bakery p roducts fo r more than i t s fla v o r value. S a l t s tr e n g th e n s th e g lu te n in b re a d dough, c o n tr o ls f e r m e n ta tio n r a t e s, a c t s a s a p r e s e r v a tiv e, and re d u c e s th e w a te r a b s o r p tio n i n bread doughs. An a lk a liz in g agent or a s a l t s u b s titu te i s needed th a t when i n com bination w ith th e e x is tin g le av e n e r of sodium b icarb o n ate o r y e a s t w ill h elp to n e u tra liz e the a c id ity of the baked product, not d is ru p t baking p ro p e rtie s, and w ill not c o n trib u te excess sodium. B read s c o n ta in in g p o ta ssiu m s a l t s may be b e n e f i c i a l to th o s e s e n s itiv e to sodium (P arfey e t a l. 1981). Potassium b icarb o n ate may be a v ia b le s u b s titu tio n fo r sodium b icarb o n ate. I t i s im ported from France a t an ex trem ely high co st (V e tte r, 1981). Potassium ch lo rid e (KCl) alone has been re p o rte d to im p art unacceptable b i t t e r fla v o rs, and so has been mixed w ith sodium c h lo rid e (NaCl). This s a l t m ix tu re i s used by th o s e who w ish to d e c re a s e sodium i n ta k e, y e t n o t be s u b je c te d to a b la n d ( s a l t l e s s ) o r b i t t e r t a s t i n g p ro d u c t. Some s u c c e s s h as been r e p o r te d u s in g th e s e s a l t m ix tu r e s (F ran k and M ickelsen, 1969, Stroh e t a l. 1985, Wyatt and Honan, 1982). The e x tra in ta k e o f p o ta ssiu m r e s u l t i n g from th e use o f th e NaCl and KCl s a l t m ix tu res does not exceed norm al l i m i t s (Frank and M ickelsen, 1969). E x p e rim e n ts w ith NaCl-KCl m ix tu r e s and w ith KCl a lo n e h av e produced bread doughs w ith s h o rte r proof and m ixing tim e s over NaCl a lo n e (AIB, 1984, S tro h e t a l. 1985). No s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on dough rheology or baking perform ance was noted when NaCl was re p la c e d w ith 40% KCl i n w heat y e a st breads (S alovaara, 1982a) and lo a f volum es were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by v a ry in g s a l t ty p e s o r m ix tu r e s i n th e w ork done by AIB (1984). S tro h e t a l. (1985) d id f i n d h ig h e r v o lum es

25 12 in w h ite pan breads w ith KCl-NaCl m ixtures. R esearchers have re p o rte d u n d e s ir a b le b i t t e r f l a v o r s when u s in g KCl a lo n e o r i n m ix tu r e s. AIB ( 1984) however, re p o rte d a d im in ish in g o f th e o f f - f la v o r s w ith aging of the bread. B reads w ith KCl were p re fe rre d by ta s te p a n e lis ts over breads w ith o u t any s a l t (AIB, 1984). Frank and M ickelsen (1969) found th a t KCl co n trib u te d as much of a s a lty fla v o r a s th e NaCl p o rtio n of th e m ix tu re, but KCl alone was re p o rte d ly b itte r. S alovaara (1982b) showed t h a t re p la c e m e n t l e v e l s o f s a l t a t 5 and I 0% o f KCl i n y e a s t b re a d s d id n o t a f f e c t th e f la v o r o f th e b re a d s. At 40$ s a l t replacem ent s ig n if ic a n t o f f - f la v o r s w ere re p o rte d. No d iffe re n c e in b re a d odor w as n o tic e d when 20% o f th e NaCl was r e p la c e d w ith KC1. W yatt and Ronan (1982) r a te d b re a d s g e n e r a lly a c c e p ta b le t h a t contained 1$ KCl which re p la ced 50$ o f th e NaCl. The o f f - f la v o r s o f potassium c h lo rid e may be masked when used i n h ig h ly fla v o re d p roducts o r in those co n tain in g th e stro n g -fla v o re d DDG.. Many s trin g e n t req u irem en ts e x is t fo r gas re le a s e r a te durin g th e leav enin g p ro cess. In ch em ically leavened p ro d u cts, only a few s o lid a c id s are commonly used as chem ical leav en in g ag en ts w hich meet these req u irem en ts. The gen eral re a c tio n i s : HX + NaHCOo > NaX; + HgO + CO2 (a c id ic s a l t ) (soda; m o istu re, h e a t (n e u tra l s a l t ) C o m b in atio n s o f tw o o r m ore d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f le a v e n e r s a re fre q u e n tly used sin c e no s in g le le av e n e r can supply th e optimum r a te i n a l l c a s e s (K ic h lin e e t a l. 1970). S e v e ra l c a lc iu m s a l t s a re commonly u sed but m ost a r e v e ry a c i d i c and th u s w ould n o t h e lp to

26 13 n e u tra liz e alread y a c id ic DDG products. Dicalcium phosphate d ih y d rate i s one a g e n t t h a t i s s l i g h t l y a l k a l i n e a t room te m p e ra tu re b u t i t r e a c t s to o l a t e i n th e b akin g c y c le f o r m ost p ro d u c ts. C alcium carbonate i s a re a d ily a v a ila b le, in expen siv e, and w ell absorbed b a sic s a l t. In y e a s t le a v e n e d p ro d u c ts, th e r e a c t i o n i s d epen d ent on y e a s t ferm e n ta tio n : SUGAR + YEAST > ALCOHOL + CO2 In th e s e p ro d u c ts, c a lc iu m and p o ta ssiu m s a l t s w ould f u n c tio n a s a n e u tra liz in g agent by r a is in g th e ph. B esides f a c i l i t a t i n g gas p roduction, le av e n e rs a lso c o n trib u te to th e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f baked goods by t h e i r c a t i o n i c o r a n io n ic e f f e c t on th e o th e r in g r e d i e n t s. C alcium s a l t s may in c r e a s e dough v is c o s ity (Dubois, 1981). Calcium c a tio n s c o n trib u te to fin e g ra in, t h i n c e l l w a lls, and in c r e a s e r e s i l i e n c y in baked goods. C alcium c a tio n s are used as dough c o n d itio n e r s w hich s tr e n g th e n s th e g lu te n c ro sslin k in g. An added b e n e fit of calcium s a l t in c o rp o ra tio n would be to in c r e a s e th e l e v e l s o f c alc iu m i n th e d i e t. Low c a lc iu m in ta k e s have been im p lic a te d i n trie developm ent of o ste o p o ro sis (Whedon, 1959, Chinn, 1981). Ranhotra (1981) found th a t i n y e a st leavened breads fed to r a t s, th e c alc iu m i n th e form of c a lc iu m s u l f a t e or i n n o n fa t dry m ilk w as r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e and a b so rb e d. The f i b e r and p h y tic a c id d id n o t have an adverse e f f e c t oh ab so rp tio n, since much of th e p h y tic a c id i n w h eat f l o u r i s broken down d u rin g trie v a r io u s s te p s i n breadm aking.

27 14 Q uick b re a d s can t o l e r a t e h ig h e r l e v e l s o f DDG th a n can y e a s t leavened products because they do not re q u ire w ell developed g lu ten. G lu te n i s a p r o t e i n i n w h eat f l o u r t h a t i s n e c e s s a ry fo r dough fo rm atio n i n y e a st breads. G luten i s re s p o n sib le fo r th e fo rm atio n of g as c e l l s f o r sh ap e, volum e and t e x t u r e o f b re a d s. G lu te n a b so rb s w ater as do sta rc h g ran u les which h elp s keep baked p roducts s o f t and f r e s h. D uring b a k in g, g a s c e l l s s t r e t c h and expand, and th e s ta r c h g e l a t i n i z e s and a b s o r b s w a te r from th e g lu te n to p re v e n t c e l l w a ll c o lla p s in g. A d d itio n a l f i b e r i n y e a s t b re a d s c a u se s an in c r e a s e d s t r a i n on th e g lu te n. Pbm eranz (1977) fo u n d t h a t a t h ig h f i b e r le v e ls, volumes in bread lo a v es w ere s ig n if ic a n tly low er due to g lu te n d i l u t i o n. lo av es. The f i b e r d is r u p te d th e crum b s t r u c t u r e o f th e b re a d Bread lo aves w ere accep tab le a t a flo u r replacem ent le v e l of 7% w ith w heat b ra n and c e l l u l o s e. L o ren z (1 976) fo u n d t h a t f i n e t r i t i c a l e b ra n p ro d u ced a b e t t e r g r a in th a n c o a rse b ra n but l o a f volumes were n o t a ffe c te d. P re v io u s w ork h a s shown t h a t a s p e r c e n t DDG in c r e a s e d, lo a f volume decreased (P re n tic e and D'Appoloia, 1977, Dreese and Hoseney, I 982, F in le y and H anam oto, I 980, Pom eranz e t a l. 1976, Morad e t a l. 1984). At f i v e, te n and f i f t e e n p e r c e n t l e v e l s o f DDG s u b s t i t u t i o n lo a f volum e d e c re a s e d 0, 11 and 17% f o r P r e n tic e and D1A p p o lo n ia (1977). This could p a rtly be the r e s u l t of decreased ph due to a c id ic DDG, or to in c re a se d v is c o s ity due to w ater binding by th e DDG. T sen e t a l. (1971) fo u n d t h a t a d d in g dough c o n d itio n e r s to p ro te in -ric h y e a st bread fo rm u la tio n s im proved lo a f volumes. Sodium- S tearo y 1-2 -L a cty la te (SSL) was more e ffe c tiv e than C alcium -Stearoy1-2-

28 15 L a c ty la te (CSL). The a d d itio n o f 0.1 to 0.2 percen t soybean l e c i t h i n (based on flo u r w eight) to y e a st doughs has improved baking p ro p e rtie s (Bichberg, 1952). L e c ith in, in a d d itio n to enhancing th e lu b r ic a tin g a c tio n of sh o rtenin g, a lso d ir e c tly lu b r ic a te s the g lu te n stra n d s and enhances dough e l a s t i c i t y in p roducts made w ith stro n g w in te r w heat flo u r s and sh o rte n s th e high e x te n s ib ility of sp rin g w heat flo u rs. P r e n tic e e t a l. (1978) s u c c e s s f u ly in corp o rated 15$ m ille d DDG in cbokies. They found th a t adding 1$ soy l e c i t h i n w ith 15$ DDG and 2$ l e c i t h i n w ith 20$ DDG im proved c o o k ie d ia m e te r s. Pom eranz e t a l. ( 1969) fo u n d t h a t s u c r o e s t e r s added to a y e a s t b re a d fo rm u la c o u n te r a c te d th e l o a f v o lu m e -d e p re s s in g e f f e c t o f h ig h p r o t e i n soy p ro d u cts. Pom eranz e t a l. (1976) found t h a t w h eat b ra n d e c re a s e d l o a f volum es o f y e a st breads, but BSG decreased volumes even more. Crumb g r a in w as a ls o im p a ire d w ith both f i b e r ty p e s. D reese and Hoseney (1982) fo u n d v o lu m es and m ix in g tim e s to in c r e a s e when SSL and s h o r te n in g w ere added to y e a s t b re a d s w ith DDG. T h is w as due to d e la y e d l o a f s e t t i n g tim e s. When th e m ille d BSG was so ak ed i n w a te r f i r s t, m ixing tim e decreased. P re n tic e e t a l. (1978) suggested th a t s u ita b le m illin g and fra c tio n a tio n o f BSG m ight h elp to o p tim iz e f ib e r (and n itro g en ) c o n te n ts o f p a r tic le s i n th e f lo u r -fin e n e s s range and t h a t u n ifo rm ly f i n e p a r t i c l e s i z e m ig h t im prove a c c e p t a b i l i t y in cookies. Wu and S tr in g f e llo w (1982) found t h a t a f t e r s ie v in g CDG, th e p r o te in c o n te n t o f CDG in c r e a s e d a s p a r t i c l e s iz e d e c re a s e d. F a t co n ten ts w ere h ig h e st in th e sm a lle s t p a r tic le s iz e f r a c tio n through

29 16 an 8.0 mesh screen. Ash co n ten t was not a lte r e d w ith siev in g. Higher f ib e r conten ts were observed in those f r a c tio n s w ith la r g e r p a r tic le s iz e. Volume in baked pro d u cts i s in flu en c ed by many f a c to r s in c lu d in g b a t t e r ph, le a v e n in g a g e n ts and f i b e r c o n te n t o f f l o u r or g r a in. I n v e s t i g a t i n g th e in f lu e n c e of th e s e and o th e r f a c t o r s i n baked products u sin g DDG w ill h elp to determ ine optimum le v e ls necessary to produce accep tab le products. O b jectiv es o f Research 1. To d e te rm in e p a r t i c l e s iz e c o m p o sitio n of te n bourbon d r ie d d i s t i l l e r s g ra in sam ples by sie v in g 2. To d e te rm in e th e e f f e c t s o f p a r t i c l e s iz e in d r ie d d i s t i l l e r s g ra in s on volume in y e a st and ch em ically leavened p ro d u cts 3. To d e te rm in e a u n ifo rm optim um ra n g e o f p a r t i c l e s iz e o f d r ie d d i s t i l l e r s g ra in s re q u ire d fo r optimum volume in y e a st and chem ically leavened products 4. To determ ine consumer acceptance of y e a st and ch em ically leavened products c o n tain in g d rie d d i s t i l l e r s g r a in s and h a v in g d e fin e d p a r tic le s iz e s 5. To determ ine.-the replacem ent le v e l of a lk a liz in g a g en ts fo r baking soda n e c e s s a ry to n e u t r a l i z e th e ph o f d r ie d d i s t i l l e r s g r a in s i n y e a st and chem ically leavened p ro d u cts 6. To reduce sodium content so th a t i t i s no g re a te r th an the stan d ard y east and ch em ically leavened p ro d u cts, and to determ ine consumer acceptance of these p roducts

30 17 MATERIALS AND METHODS D i s t i l l e r s ' D ried G rain s Nine d if f e r e n t sam ples of bourbon DDG (A-I) were su p p lie d by th e D i s t i l l e r s Feed R ese arch C o u n cil (DFRC). The te n th sam p le (K) was o b tain ed in Kentucky by the re searc h team. All i n i t i a l work was done w ith K and th e n e x te n d e d to in c lu d e A, B, and I sam p le s i n p h y s ic a l and chem ical t e s t s and in some of the baking t r i a l s. DDG sam ples te s te d w ere d esig n ated B -I, K-I and 1-1. These o rig in a l Data o b tained on th e o r i g i n a l sam p les a f t e r one and one h a l f y e a r s o f f r o z e n s to r a g e a re re f e r r e d to as DDG sam ples B-2, K-2 and 1-2. A d d itional sam ples o f B, K and I were o b tain ed in F a ll, 1985 and were d esig n ated B-3, K-3 and 1-3. Midway through th e re searc h, i t was le arn ed th a t DDG sam ples B and K w ere from th e same p la n t. They w ere c o n tin u e d to be t r e a t e d as sam p les from d i f f e r e n t p la n ts, how ever t h i s in f o r m a tio n m ust be considered when analy zin g the r e s u lts. P a r t i c l e S ize D eterm in atio n To d e te rm in e th e p a r t i c l e s iz e c o m p o sitio n o f each DDG, a 100 g sam ple of DDG was sep arated on a n e st of siev e s (U.S. Standard T estin g S e r ie s ) a t 1-6, 25, 35, 60, 80 and 100 mesh s iz e s by sh a k in g f o r te n m in u te s on a T y le r Ro-Tap m e c h a n ic a l s h a k e r (W.S. T y le r Co., M entor, Ohio). 1 I M ention o f firm names o r p ro d u c ts does n o t c o n s titu te endorsem ent by Montana S ta te U n iv e rs ity over o th e rs of a s im ila r n a tu re.

31 18 The p a r t i c l e s iz e f r a c t i o n r e f e r s to t h a t p o r tio n o f th e sam p le rem aining on top of the siev e. M u ltiv a ria te a n a ly s is of v a ria n ce was used to t e s t f o r p a r a l l e l i s m o f p a r t i c l e s iz e d i s t r i b u t i o n betw een sam p les (SPSS, I n c., I 983). DDG G rinding U n fractio n ated DDG sample K and i t s s e le c te d siev e s iz e f r a c tio n s of 16, 35, 60, and 80 mesh were ground through a 1/2 m illim e te r screen on a C yclone Sam ple M ill (Type KCL-24A2), UD C o rp o ra tio n, F o rt C o llin s, Colorado. U n fractio n ated DDG sam ples A, B and I w ere ground fo r baking t r i a l s in the same manner. Chemical A nalysis o f DDG The f o llo w in g t e s t s w ere p e rfo rm ed on u n f r a c t i o n s t e d DDG and sie v e f r a c tio n s iz e s 16, 35, 60 and 80 fo r th e two batch es o f B, I and K and f o r th e one b a tc h o f u n f r a c tio n a te d DDG sam ple A: n e u tr a l d e te r g e n t f i b e r (NDF) a c c o rd in g to R o b e rtso n and Van S o e s t ( 1977) a s m o d ifie d by Roth e t a l. ( I 982); a c id d e te r g e n t f i b e r (ADF) a c c o rd in g to th e A s s o c ia tio n o f O f f i c i a l A n a ly tic a l C h em ists (AOAC) m ethods ( 1980); p r o te in c o n te n t u s in g th e K je ld a h l m ethod (N X 6.25) (A0AC, 1970); l i p i d c o n te n t by e th e r e x t r a c t (A0AC, I 980); and a sh c o n te n t acco rd in g to AOAC (1980). Q u a n tita tiv e and q u a lita tiv e l i p i d an aly ses were perform ed on whole DDG sam ples used i n products th a t underwent baking perform ance t e s t s (B, I, and K). T r ip lic a te m easurem ents were o b ta in e d f o r b a tc h e s 2 and 3 o f DDG sam p les B, I and K i n th e q u a lita tiv e m easurem ents. S in g le m easurem ents were o b tain ed f o r a l l o th e r a n a ly s e s. L ip id s w ere e x t r a c t e d u s in g hexane by vacuum

32 19 f i l t r a t i o n and e v a p o r a tio n under a n itr o g e n s tre a m. T h in -la y e r chrom atography (TLC) was used to sep a ra te the l i p i d s in to fiv e bands (Dawson e t a l. 1984), and th e f a t t y acid p r o f ile was determ ined u sin g g a s -liq u id chrom atography (GLC) (B idet, 1984b). A nalysis o f v arian ce (MSUSTAT, Lund, 1983, Snedecor and Co char an, 1980) was used to compare d i f f e r e n c e s ill FFA cbm p o s i t i o n b etw een th e two b a tc h e s (2 and 3) of DDG sam p les B, I, and K. T itr a tio n o f A lk a liz in g Agents S e v e ra l m eth o d s w ere used to d e te rm in e th e am ount o f e ach a lk a liz in g ag en t re q u ire d to n e u tra liz e th e a c id ic DDG. I). Calcium carbonate (100 mg - 50 g p o rtio n s) or NaHCOg ( mg p o rtio n s) was added i n in c re m e n ts to a s l u r r y o f one cup ( g ram s) o f DDG sam p les A, B, I and K m ixed w ith 400 m i l l i l i t e r s o f d i s t i l l e d w a te r to determ ine th e amount needed to n e u tr a liz e th e a c id ity of th e DDG to ph ). A s o l u t i o n o f.in CaCOg w as t i t r a t e d i n m i l l i l i t e r in c re m e n ts a g a in s t a m ix tu r e o f 50 g ram s o f DDG and 200 m i l l i l i t e r s of d i s t i l l e d w ater. 3). In crem en ts o f 300 m illig ra m s - 10 grams o f CaCOg was t i t r a t e d a g a in st a m ix tu re of 20 gram s o f sample K DDG and 75 m i l l i l i t e r s of d i s t i l l e d w ater a t b o ilin g tem p eratu re of C e n tig ra d e ( a d ju s te d f o r a l t i t u d e ). The a p p ro p ria te amounts of a l k a l i z i n g a g e n ts (NaHCOg o r CaCOg) w ere th e n added to p ro d u c t fo rm u la tio n s in a d d itio n to th e normal leav en in g system.

33 20 P ro d u ct P re p a ra tio n Y east B reads DDG s a m p le s A, B, I, an d K w e re i n c o r p o r a t e d i n th e u n fra c tio n a te d s ta t e in both the unground and ground form s (Table I). DDG sample K was in c o rp o ra te d a t each sie v e f r a c tio n in the unground and ground fo rm s (T ab le I ). Four s a l t ty p e s and l e v e l s w ere in c o r p o r a te d i n t o th e y e a s t r o l l s (T ab le 2). The re d u c e d s a l t l e v e l i n r o l l C w as u sed to co m p en sate f o r th e e x tr a sodium added by th e n e u tra liz in g agent, NaHCOg. T able I. Y east r o l l fo rm u la tio n s w ith NaHCOg v a r ia tio n s. R oll Types In g re d ie n t C ontrol 33% DDG Bread f lo u r (g) Whole wheat flo u r (g) 29 DDG (g) 29 N onfat dry m ilk (g) Shortening (g) Sugar (g) S a lt (g) Baking soda (g )a 1.05 Yeast (g) W ater (ml) Water tem perature (degrees C) a Amount of soda in grams fo r each DDG sam ple i s as fo llo w s: K = 1.05; A = 1.45; B =.87; I =.87. The s t r a i g h t dough m ethod w as used to make th e d in n e r r o l l s, re p la c in g 33% of the t o t a l f lo u r w eight w ith the v a rio u s form s of the DDG sam p les. In th e e x p e r im e n ta l r o l l s, th e DDG, s h o r te n in g, 75% o f th e w ater, and the baking soda (NaHCOg) were mixed w ith the paddle f o r f iv e m inutes a t power 2 using a K itchen Aid Mixer (Type K5SS, Hobart

34 21 C orporation, Troy, Ohio). Then th e r e s t of the w ater, flo u r and the re m a in in g dry i n g r e d i e n t s w ere added. F o llo w in g th e f i r s t ferm entation of th irty minutes, dough was shaped in to 22 gram (Table I) or 44 gram (Table 2) ro se tte s and allowed to proof again for th irty minutes. The r o lls were baked in a conventional oven a t 204 c. Table 2. Yeast r o ll form ulations with s a lt variations. Roll Types a Ingredient Control A 33% DDG B C D Bread flo u r (g) Whole wheat flour (g) 232 DDG (G) Nonfat dry milk (g) Shortening (g) Sugar (g) S a lt/s a lt su b stitu te (g) Baking soda (g) Yeast (g) Water (ml) Water temperature (degrees C) a Roll types as follow s: A-Salt; B-No s a lt; C-Reduoed s a lt; D-Salt su b stitu te (KCl). Quick Breads Oatmeal muffins were mixed using the standard muffin method (Charley, 1982) and baked a t 204 C in a conventional oven. The DDG, baking soda, and/or calcium s a lt and milk were soaked fo r 15 minutes, and were added to the oats and creamed ingredients before adding the flour and re s t of the dry ingredients. The muffin b a tte r was weighed out in e ith e r 16 g p o rtio n s in to 4.5 X 4.5 cm m uffin cups (Table 3) or 60 g p o rtio n s in to 7.6 X 3.17 cm m uffin cups (T ables 4 and 5).

35 2 2 DDG samples A, Bf I and K were incorporated a t a 36% replacement level for the oats and flo u r (Table 3). To te s t for the p a rtic le size e f f e c t on volume, these DDG sam ples were in c o rp o ra te d in th e u n fra c tio n a te d s ta te using both unground and ground form s. In addition, DDG sample K was incorporated a t each sieve frac tio n in the unground and ground form s and in the u n fra c tio n a te d s ta te both unground and ground a t 5% and 15% replacement lev els (Table 3). Table 3. Oatmeal muffin form ulations with NaHCOg variations. Muffin Types Ingredient Control 5% DDG 15% DDG 36% DDG Egg (ml) Brown sugar (g) Milk (ml) Shortening (g) Quick ro lled oats (g) White all-purpose flour (g) Baking powder (g) Salt (g) Baking soda (g) a DDG (g) » ^ ^ _,. a Amount of soda in grams for each DDG sample as follow s: K =.64, A = I.065; B =.89; I =. 89. DDG sample K was incorporated a t the 36% replacement level in the u n f r a c tio n a te 4 unground form to determ ine the e f f e c t of a lk a liz in g ag en ts o th e r than NaHCOg and th e e f f e c t of s a l t le v e l and s a l t type v a r ia tio n s on the baked product. B atches were baked to in clu d e no NaHCOg, to in clu d e th re e le v e ls of s a l t (NaCl) and level of potassium chloride (KCl) (Tables 4 and 5). to in clu d e one The reduced s a lt level in muffin C was used to compensate for the extra sodium added by the n eu tralizin g agent, NaHCOg.

36 2 3 After cooling, muffins and r o lls were placed in freezer bags and fro ze n fo r 24 hours before p h y sical t e s t s were perform ed, or fro zen u n til needed for ta ste panel evaluation. Table 4. Oatmeal m u ffin fo rm u la tio n s w ith a lk a liz in g agent v ariatio n s. Muffin Types Ingredient No NaHCOg NaHCOg CaCOg Egg (ml) Brown sugar (g) Milk (ml) Shortening (g) Quick ro lled oats (g) White flour (g) Baking powder (g) Baking soda (g) 1.3 Calcium carbonate (g) 1.3, 2.6, or 3.9 S alt (g) DDG (g) Table 5. Oatmeal muffin formulations with s a lt variatio n s. Muffin Typesa Ingredient Control A 36% DDG B C D Egg (ml) Brown sugar (g) Milk (ml) Shortening (g) Quick ro lled oats (g) White flo u r (g) Baking powder (g) S a lt/s a lt su b stitu te (g) Baking soda (g) DDG (g) amuffin types were as follow s: A-Salt; B-No s a lt; C-Reduced sa lt; D -S a lt, su b stitu te (KCl).

37 24 Physical Analysis of Baked Products Volume Product volume was measured 24 hours a fte r removal from the oven using the rape seed displacement method. (Cath c a r t and Cole, I 938). A nalysis of covariance, m u lti- f a c to r and m u ltiv a r ia te a n a ly s is of v a ria n ce methods (MSUSTAT, Lund, 1983, Snedecor and Cocharan, 1980) were used to analyze the e ffe cts of p a rtic le size and s a lt types and lev els on volume. ph A s lu rry was made by blending te n grams of each m u ffin or r o l l w ith 40 ml. of d i s t i l l e d w ater in a Waring Commercial B lendor (Type SJT, New H artford, Conn.) for 30 seconds. The ph of t h i s s lu rry was determined using a ph meter (Corning S c ie n tific Instrum ents, Model 7, d i s t r i b u t e d by Van W ate rs and R o g ers, I n c., M e d fie ld, MA.). T rip licate measurements were performed on each batch. Percent Color Reflectance The p ercen t r e fle c ta n c e of c o lo r fo r each m uffin and r o l l and whole or fractionated DDG was determined using an Agtron reflectance spectrophotometer (M-500-A Magnuson Engineering, Inc., San Jose, CA.). Each baked product was blended for 30 seconds in an O sterizer (Galaxie Type, O ster C o rp o ra tio n, M ilw aukee, W isc o n sin ) b e fo re c o lo r determ inations were made. T riplicate measurements were performed on each batch.

38 2 5 Dough S ta b ility S t a b i l i t y of the y e ast bread dough components was determ ined using a farinograph (Brabender C orporation, R ochelle Park, N.J. Type FT3, No. 438). A s in g le measurement of s t a b i l i t y was made fo r each formula that used ground or unground, unfractionated and fractionated DDG sample K a t 30% flour replacement levels. S ta b ility was determined once for each formula that incorporated 30% whole unground DDG sample K with sk it, with decreased s a lt, and with the s a lt su b stitu te of KC1. M u ltip le re g re s s io n a n a ly s is (MSUSTAT, Lund, 1983, Snedecor and Co char an, 1980). was performed to determine re la tio n s between percent w ater a b so rp tio n and p a r tic le s iz e ; p e rc en t w ater a b so rp tio n and p ro te in content of the DDG f r a c tio n and v a lo rim ete r dough q u a lity score values and baked product volumes a t each p a rtic le size fraction. Organoleptic Evaluation Trained Taste Panel The y e ast r o l l s and oatm eal m uffins c o n tain in g 33% and 36% unground bourbon DDG sample K and e ith e r stan d ard s a l t le v e ls, no s a lt, reduced s a lt or a potassium -chloride s a lt su b stitu te were judged in a screening taste panel by ten trained judges. A paired comparison t e s t and a n in e -p o in t hedonic t e s t w ere used fo r r a tin g th e sam ples (Appendix A). Judges ra te d coded sam ples in in d iv id u a l booths in a darkened room under* 25 watt blue colored lig h ts. Room temperature d is tille d w ater was provided for rinsing palates between samples. The judges consisted of 7 females and 3 males. Ages ranged from 21 to 37, w ith a mean age of 30.8 y ears. The Schfeffe model fo r p aired

39 26 comparison preference te s ts with Tukey1S m ultiple comparison te s t was used to determ ine e f f e c ts of tre a tm e n t on p referen ce (Gacula and Singh, 1984). This model allo w s fo r e f f e c ts due to th e order of p re s e n ta tio n of ite m s of a p a ir. M u ltifa c to r a n a ly s is of v arian ce (MSUSTAT, Lund, 1983, Snedecor and Cocharan, 1980) was used to analyze judge and treatm ent effect on hedonic ratings. Consumer Panels Two consumer ta s te p an els were conducted in the Main Mall Shopping C enter in Bozeman, Montana. Untrained p a n elists recorded th e ir age and sex and ra te d the y e a s t and quick breads u sin g a nine point hedonic scale (Appendix A). The r o lls and muffins were sliced and placed on coded tra y s. Room tem p eratu re d i s t i l l e d w ater, was provided to rin s e p a la te s between sam ples. Only p ro p erly com pleted hedonic forms were tabulated. The f i r s t panel conducted on December I, ,rated yeast breads and quick breads (oatmeal muffins) where 33%' and 36% of the flo u r and o a ts were re p la c e d w ith bourbon DDG sam ple K, both ground and unground. Judges were re q u ire d to ta s te e ith e r the p a ir of m u ffin s or the p a ir of y e a s t r o l l s, but not both, unless they desired. The yeast r o lls were rated by 94 judges, of whom 63 were females and 31 were males. Ages ranged from 6 to 70 years old w ith a mean age of 26.9 years. The m u ffin s were ra te d by 102 judges of whom 66 were females and 36 were male. Ages ranged from 5 to 82 years old, with a mean age of 29.4 years. The second ta ste panel on December 7, 1985 was conducted to te s t yeast r o lls and quick breads (oatmeal muffins) where 33% and 36% of

40 27 the flour and oats were replaced with the unground bourbon DDG sample K and e ith e r s a l t, no s a l t, or reduced s a l t were added. These were compared against a standard control with no DDG and with a normal s a lt level. Judges were required to ta ste e ith e r a ll four of the yeast ro ll samples or a ll four of the muffin samples, and were allowed to ta ste a l l e ig h t sam ples i f they d e sired. The y e a s t r o l l s were ra te d by 96 judges, of whom 59 were females and 37 were males. Ages ranged from 5 to 74 y e ars old, w ith a mean age of y ears. The m u ffin s were rated by 100 judges, of whom 6.1 were females and 39 were males. The ages of th e.ju d g es ranged from 3 to.80 y e a rs w ith a mean age of years. M u l t i v a r i a t e and c o v a ria n c e a n a ly s is of v a ria n ce methods (MSUSTAT, Lund, 1983, Snedecor and Cocharan, 1980) were used to determ ine th e e f f e c ts of age and sex on r o l l or m uffin p referen ce. M u ltiv a ria te and covariance a n a ly s is methods (MSUSTAT, Lund, 1983, Snedecor and Cocharan, 1980) were also performed to determine i f type of r o ll or muffin, age or sex affected the ra tin g of the products.

41 28 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION P a rtic le Size D istribution As shown in Table 6, m u ltiv a r ia te a n a ly s is of v a ria n ce found s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s (P<0.0 5) in p a rtic le size d istrib u tio n among a ll ten sam ples of DDG (A-I). As sieve size number in c re ase d, the mesh opening and thus the p a rtic le size decreased. Sample C may have been ground, as i t appeared much fin er than the other samples, which would e x p la in th e la rg e percentage of m a te ria l in th e siev e 3 5 frac tio n s iz e. The same te st of parallelism was performed to compare differences between two batches from the same plant for DDG samples B-I versus B-3, K-I versus K-3, and I-1 versus 1-3. S ta tis tic a lly significant differences (P<0.05) were found in p article size d istrib u tio n in all three comparisons, p articu larly for sample K, although the differences may be of minor practical significance. The p ercen t d is tr ib u tio n of each siev e f r a c tio n was averaged among DDG sam p les A, B, and I and com pared to DDG sam ple K d is tr ib u tio n, The average of A, B, and I p a r tic le s iz e d is tr ib u tio n was sig n ifican tly d ifferen t (P<0.05) from sample K as shown in Table 6. These r e s u l t s in d ic a te th a t v a r ia tio n in g rain com position and processing methods among producers, of bourbon, resu lted in DDG with v ary in g p a r t i c l e s iz e.d is tr ib u tio n s. D ifferen ces may e x is t among batches in the same plant.

42 Table P article size composition of bourbon DDG. Percent DDG on Top of Sieve Sieve Size throughs Mesh Size > 100 DDG Sample A B-I B-3 C D E F G H I-I 1-3 K-I K-3 A,B,I mean 35 ±2 19 ± ± ±.7 13 ±1 8 ± ±1 25 ± ± ± ± ±.3 4 ±.1 I ±.3 I ±.5 5 ±.2.6± ± ± ± ±_.4 trace I ±,.2.6 ±.2 trace trace trace trace.9 ± ± trace ±.4 trace trace 2 +1 trace 2 ±2.1 ±.2 trace 2 ±.4.7 Chemical Analysis of DDG Proximate Analysis The chemical composition of the unfractionated DDG samples were quite sim ilar, except for the fib e r content, based on two analyses per sample (Table 7). Sample I had a much h ig h er f ib e r co n ten t (NDF and ADF) than did the other samples. Samples K and B were produced a t the same plant, although they may have undergone d ifferen t ferm entation tim es. Batch K-I is known to have undergone a 4-day fe rm e n ta tio n, however, i t had th e h ig h er ph. The o rig in a l g ra in s used and d iff e r e n c e s in p ro cessin g may have r e s u lte d in DDG sam ples w ith varying ph's and chemical composition.

43 Table 7. Analysis pf DDG samplesa. 3 0 Dry m atter Protein Ether extract NDF ADF Ash ph DDG Sample % % % % % % B-I unfractionated sieve sieve sieve sieve b b B-3 unfractionated sieve sieve sieve sieve K=I unf r a c ti ona ted sieve sieve sieve sieve K=3. unf r a c ti ona ted sieve sieve sieve sieve I= I unfractionated sieve sieve sieve sieve =3. unfractionated sieve , sieve sieve sieve A unfractionated Sm,. _ ^,,, athe standard deviation was 2.0% for the NDF and ADF1 and 0.5% for a ll other analyses. There was not enough sample for analyses.

44 31 Sieving of DDG samples into four p a rtic le size fractio n s showed some consistent trends in chemical composition between samples, based on two an aly se s perform ed on each sam ple (Table 7). Samples B and K were produced a t the same plant, so can be considered as rep licates. In a ll samples, as p a rtic le size decreased from sieve number 16 to 80, the p ro te in p ercen t in creased. fractio n s of the DDG I samples The p ro te in co n ten t of the siev e had a greater spread than th a t found in the o th er DDG sam ples. In sam ples B and K, l i p i d p ercen t (eth er e x tra c t) decreased as p a r t i c l e s iz e decreased. In sam ple I, lip i d percent varied slig h tly among sieve fractio n s of both batches of I-I and 1-3. NDF value varied among samples. In samples K-I, K-3, and B-I NDF p ercen t in c re a se d as p a r tic le siz e decreased, u n til the f in e s t f r a c tio n s iz e, siev e 80 when i t decreased. NDF in c re a se d in th e fin e s t sieve 80 frac tio n of sample B-3. NDF decreased with decreasing p a rtic le size in both I-I and 1-3 samples. ADF values were affected s im ila r ly by p a r tic le size. Sample B-3 seems to have a. higher percentage of fib e r in the fin e st sieve fraction. Dry m a tte rs in a l l sam ples appeared only s lig h t l y a lte re d by s ie v in g th e DDG, although they s l i g h t l y decreased w ith d ecreasin g p a r tic le s iz e in the I- I and 1-3 sam ples. Ash c o n ten ts were q u ite sim ilar among sieve fractio n s for a ll DDG samples, except in samples I-I and 1-3, where ash percentages increased with decreasing p article size.

45 3 2 Lipid Composition Batch v a ria b ility A com parison of the q u a n tita tiv e (TLC) p e rc en ta g e s of l i p id frac tio n s was made between the two batches (I and 3) obtained for each of the three DDG samples (B, I and K), assuming an experimental error o f + 5%. F ig u re I shows c o n s id e r a b le d i f f e r e n c e s in th e triacy lg ly cero l (TAG) portion in a l l samples. DDG samples B and K are known to be from the same plant, although were treated as different. Both DDG batches B-3 and K-3 had a h ig h er percentage of TAG than th e DDG batches of B-2 or K-2. Concom itant d ecreases in the fr e e f a t t y a cid (FFA) and s te r o l e s te r bands were noted in B-3 and K-3 batches. DDG samples B and K were obtained from a plant that u tiliz e s eith er a 3-day or a 4-day ferm entation period, which was not specified except for DDG sample K-I. I t was produced in a 4-day ferm entation period. The 4.3 ph of K-I is higher than the other B or K samples, which would not lend to speculation th at longer ferm entation times re s u lt in more a c id ic DDG sam ples. However, o th er f a c to r s in p ro c e ssin g may have caused a more a c id ic DDG. The more a c id ic DDG may be more prone to a cid h y d ro ly sis. The FFA content was 9% low er in K-3 (ph 4.0) than in K-I (ph 4.3), which may indicate acid hydrolysis occurred w ithin the FFA of K-3 during processing. N o ticeab le d iffe re n c e s o ccurred between the two batches of DDG sample I. I-I batch. The TAG p o rtio n was Q% low er in the 1-3 batch than in the Increases were seen in the monoacyig ly cerol-diacy!glycerol (MAG-DAG) and s te r o l e s te r bands. No a p p re cia b le d iffe re n c e s were observed in th e FFA band, even though the ph of 1-3 (3.83) was low er

46 3 3 Percent B-I B-Z B -3 K-I K-Z K -3 I - I I-Z 1-3 DDG Samples Figure I. Q uantitative percentages of lip id fractio n s of DDG samples B, K and I. Standard deviation of each frac tio n = ± 5.0$ = Mono-diacylglycerols J = Methyl-Ethyl Esters D = Free Fatty Acids H = Sterol Esters ffll = Triacylglycerols

47 3 4 than th e ph of I-I (4.05). These d iffe re n c e s may be due to the o rig in a l g rain used or s u b tle v a r ia tio n s in p ro cessin g. Given the app ro x im ately 5% v a r i a b i l i t y due to ex p erim en tal e rro r in th e TLC technique, these re s u lts must be treated with caution. Comparison of the q u a lita tiv e lip id composition in the TAG band among these two d if f e r e n t batches (I and 3) of each of B, I and K DDG sam ples showed no c o n sis te n t tre n d s, assum ing a mean stan d ard d e v ia tio n o f + 1.0% (F igure 2). There was v i r t u a l l y no d iffe re n c e found among th e two batches of sample B. K-3 and 1-3 had le s s l i n o l e i c acid (18:2) than K-I and I - I by 8% and 9% re s p e c tiv e ly. There was 5% more o le ic a cid (18:1) in B-3 than in I - I. In th e FFA band, slig h t differences were observed only among DDG samples K and I (Figure 3). Linoleic acid was lower by 5% and 12% in samples K-3 and 1-3 resp ectiv ely. The low er le v e ls of l i n o l e i c acid found in both the TAG and FFA bands of 1-3 and K-3 batches compared to I-I and K-I may be a r e s u l t of processing v ariatio n s between batches. A higher oxidation ra te in the second b atches may have r e s u lte d in in c re ase d breakdown of l i n o l e i c a cid from the TAG band to form secondary re a c tio n products such as sh o rt-c h a in e d aldehydes, ketones and hydroxyl compounds. Percent dry m atter of a m aterial influences the degree of oxidation. Very dry food products (ie. percent m oistures of about 2-5%) are more prone to o x id a tio n. A s l i g h t in c re a se in p ercent m o istu re r e ta rd s oxidation, while fu rth er in c re a se s a c c e le r a te the process (Fennema, I 985). The p ercen t m o istu re s of these DDG sam ples v a rie d s lig h t l y between batches, but were probably s im ila r enough so th a t p ercen t

48 35 Percent B-I B-2 B -3 K-I K-2 K-3 I - I DDG Samples Figure 2. Triacylglycerol quality changes in re la tiv e percentage of fa tty acid composition of DDG samples, B, K, and I. Standard deviation of each fractio n = ± I.0$ g g = Palmitic (16:0) gjg] = Linoleic (18:2) I I = S tearic (18:0) H = Linolenic (18:3) HU = Oleic (18:1)

49 36 Percent B - 1 B-Z B -3 K-I K-Z K-3 I-I I-Z 1-3 DDG Samples Figure 3. Free fa tty acid quality changes in re la tiv e percentage of fa tty acid composition of DDG samples B1 K, and I. Standard deviation of each fractio n = ± I.0$ ggg = Palmitic (16:0) ] = Linoleic (18:2) I I = S tearic (18:0) H = Linoleic (18:3) {JJJ = Oleic (18:1)

50 37 m o istu re d iffe re n c e s were not a f f e c tin g th e o x id a tio n r a te of the f a t t y acid s. All sam ples were h eld in fro zen sto ra g e which should have prevented them from being s u s c e p tib le to o x id a tio n from high tem p eratu re exposure. P ro cessin g v a r ia tio n s a t the p la n t may have caused th e s lig h t d iffe re n c e s shown in f r e e f a t t y acid com position between the two DDG batches, from the same plant. The placem ent of a s p e c if ic f a t t y acid a t each of the th re e positions on the TAG molecule i s also important because fa tty acids in th e o u ter p o s itio n s of the TAG m olecule a re more s u s c e p tib le to oxidation (Barnes, 1983). The conventional stereo sp ecific numbering of glycerol is as follow s (Fennema, 1985): CHpOH I I I HO-C-H 2 I I CH2OH 3 Bourbon DDG c o n sist p rim a rily of corn. In corn o il, lin o l e i c acid occupies e ith e r p o s itio n I or 2 of the TAG m olecule, which i s determ ined by random d is tr ib u tio n (Fennema, 1985). The v a r ia tio n s shown in l i n o l e i c a cid le v e ls in th e TAG bands could be due to i t s v a r ia tio n s in placem ent on the TAG m olecule. I t may be th a t low er lev els of lin o le ic acid resulted when i t was present in the number I p o s itio n on the TAG and was thus p r e f e r e n tia lly o xidized. The l i m it a ti o n s of the TLC and GLC tech n iq u es may also e x p la in th e v ariatio n s shown.

51 3 8 T rea tin g sam ples B and K as d if f e r e n t batches from the same plant, analysis of variance was performed to compare FFA percentage d iffe re n c e s in th e FFA band and in th e TAG band between sam ples B-3 and K-3 (Tables 8 and 9). Comparisons could not be made between B-I and K-I due to lack of treatm ent rep licatio n. Significant differences were shown in p a lm itic a c id, 16:0 (P<0.05) and l i n o l e i c a c id, 18:2 (P<0.01) in th e TAG band (Table 8). Batch K-3 contain ed l e s s l i n o l e i c a cid a tta c h e d to a c y lg ly c e ro ls than batch B-3. In the FFA band, sig n ifican t differences were shown between palm itic acid (P<0.01) and between o le ic a c id, 18:1 (P<0.01) (Table 9). Batch K-3 had h igher lev els of palm itic acid and le ss free oleic acid than batch B-3. These re s u lts suggest that differences may occur in FFA content between two batches of DDG from the same plant, but given technique lim itatio n s, the differences may hot be of p ractical significance. Table 8. Triacylglycerol quality changes in re la tiv e percentage of fa tty acid composition of DDG samples B-3 and K-3. Fatty Acid Percent DDG Sample Palm itic (16:0) S tearic (18:0) Oleic (18:1) Linoleic (18:2) Linolenic (18:3) B-3 K I.Oa b I ±.02 I ±.7b 3 ±.1 52 ± I.4a abv alues in the same column th a t do not share a common s u p e r s c rip t d iffe r sig n ifican tly, P<0.05 for palm itic, and P<0.01 for lin o le ic. ) E ffects of frozen storage Examining th e e f f e c t s of.1 1/2 years of fro zen sto ra g e on th e q u an titativ e lip id composition of the DDG samples (I and 2) revealed a consistent trend only in the TAG band (Figure I). Increases in the TAG

52 3 9 band over storage time were of 6% in sample B, 3% in sample K, and 6% in sample I. These in c re a s e s in TAG were o f f s e t by d ecreases in sample B by p rim a rily the MAG-DAG and s te r o l e s te r bands, and in samples K and I by prim arily the FFA band. These differences may be small enough to be considered a re s u lt of the expected 5% experimental error. Table 9. Free fa tty acid quality changes in re la tiv e percentage of fa tty acid composition of DDG samples B-3 and K-3. Fatty Acid Percent ' DDG Sample Palm itic S tearic Oleic Linoleic Linolenic (16:0) (18:0) (18:1) (18:2) (18:3) B-3 26 ±.3a 4 ± Bb ±.6 K-3 29 ±.8b I a I +.5 a ^lv alues in the same column th a t do not share a common s u p e r s c rip t d iffe r sig n ifican tly, P<0.01. Comparison of the q u a lita tiv e lip id composition in the TAG band showed a c o n sis te n t d ecreasin g tre n d in l i n o l e i c a cid among DDG sam ples (I and 2) a f t e r sto rag e tim e (F igure 2). D ecreases of 5% in sample B-2, 135» in sample K-2 and 4% in sample 1-2 occurred. In sample K-2 an 8% increase in o leic acid and a 3% increase in palm itic acid were also noted. Oleic acid content increased by k% in sample 1-2. Comparison of the q u a lita tiv e lip id composition in the FFA band showed no appreciable differences in FFA composition a fte r I 1/2 years fro ze n sto ra g e between DDG sam ples I-1 and 1-2 (F igure 3). In DDG sample B, a 4% increase in palm itic acid and a two-fold increase in lin o le n ic a cid (18:3) were observed. A 7% decrease in l i n o l e i c acid

53 40 was shown a f t e r sto rag e tim e in sam ple K-2. L in o len ic acid was decreased by I 1/2 times, although, as in the other DDG samples, th is represents only a minor decrease, since lin o len ic acid i s present in such small amounts. I t i s lik e ly th at those differences found of 5% or le ss were due to technique lim ita tio n s and that the q u an titativ e lip id composition of the DDG sam ples rem ained q u ite s ta b le during th e fro z e n sto rag e tim e in a l l th ree DDG sam ples. The la r g e r percentage d iffe re n c e s shown in free fa tty acids may be real. The decreases of lin o le ic acid may be the re s u lt of i t s oxidation during storage. Some p referen tial oxidation of lin o le ic acid may have occurred i f i t was present in the number I p o s itio n on the TAG m olecule. I t may have been f u r th e r oxidized to form secondary reaction products. Sodium bicarbonate titr a tio n T itratio n of Alkalizing Agents As in d ic a te d in F igure 4, DDG sam ples v a rie d in th e amount of baking soda (NaHCOg) needed to ra ise th eir ph's. However, the gradual increasing trend was f a ir ly consistent among samples. The amount of NaHCOg needed ( g) to neutralize each DDG to ph 7*0 was 5,640 mg fo r sample K, 8,400 mg fo r sample I, 10,800 mg fo r sam ple B, and 12,000 mg fo r sample A. The amounts appeared dependent on the sta rtin g ph of the DDG sample before NaHCOg was added. That with the lo w est sample ph (A) re q u ire d the m ost NaHCOg1 and th a t w ith the highest sample ph (K) required the le a s t NaHCOg. The sta rtin g sample ph's were 3,7 fo r A, 4.0 f o r B, 4.05 fo r I, and 4.3 fo r K.

54 41 O NqHCO j (mg) Figure 4. T itratio n of baking soda (NaHCOg) against DDG samples A, B, I, and K. = A O = B A = I A = K

55 42 Based on th e t i t r a t i o n curves, the amount of NaHCOg needed to achieve a product ph close to the standard was determined for each DDG sample per gram of DDG in th e fo rm u la (Table 10). Those baked p ro d u cts in c o rp o ra tin g DbG w ith low er ph's re q u ire d more NaHCOg to b rin g t h e i r product ph up to th e stan d ard product ph. Amounts required ranged from.03 to.06 g NaHCOg/g DDG. Table 10. Levels of NaHCOg added to obtain standard product ph in DDG baked products. Weight of NaHCOg added to product per gram of DDG DDG Sample Quick Breads (ph 6.57) Yeast Breads (ph 5.92) A.06 g NaHCOo.05 s NaHCO3 B.05 g NaHCOg.03 S NaHCOg I.05 g NaHCOg.03 g NaHCOg Ka.03 g NaHCOg.02 g NaHCOg afor sample K,.05 g NaHCOg per g DDG was a c tu a lly in c o rp o ra te d in both products based on decision by previous researchers. Calcium carbonate titr a tio n Calcium carbonate (CaCOg) is a known n eu tralizer of acids, as i t increases ph, although i t may decrease the volume of a baked product (Ja ck e l, I 969). I t i s i n e r t in baking and does not add a v a ila b le carbon dioxide to a baking powder (Conn, 1965). I t was th e re fo re, co n sid ered as a p o s sib le a lk a liz in g agent fo r use in baked products u t i l i z i n g the ty p ic a lly a c id ic DDG. I t was d isco v ered to be an i n e f f e c tiv e a lk a liz in g agent fo r DDG due to th e la rg e amounts found necessary to ra ise the ph of DDG.

56 4 3 CaCOg was titr a te d in three forms against DDG sample K (Appendix B). The addition in the dry gram weight form required 7.7 g of CaCtig/ g DDG to obtain the standard product ph in a yeast bread formula. In a boiling w ater medium, the CaCOg was fa irly insoluble, requiring 26.8 g o f CaCOg to r a is e th e ph of 20 g of DDG from 4.75 to The th ird titr a tio n of DDG using.in CaCOg required 50 g/g DDG which also was unacceptable. Quick breads with 36% DDG sample K P a rticle Size Effect on Volume Quick Breads Oatmeal muffins were baked to determine the e ffe cts of p a rtic le s iz e tre a tm e n ts (siev e f r a c tio n ) and g rin d on volume (Table 11). G rinding th e DDG had no s ig n if ic a n t e f f e c t on volume. The mean volumes among the fiv e frac tio n s were cc ± 1.52 for the muffins baked with unground DDG fractions, and cc ± for the muffins baked with ground DDG fractions. The p a rtic le size (sieve fraction) of DDG was not sig n ifican tly a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e volum e of th e baked m u ffin (PX0 5). No s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t difference was found between volumes of any of the products baked w ith DDG or between the stan d ard w ith no DDG (P>0.1). S u b jectiv e a n a ly s is of the volume means did in d ic a te the products with DDG had le sse r apparent volumes than the standard. The volumes ranged from 20 cc in th e m u ffin baked w ith u n fra c tio n a te d, un ground DDG to 26 cc in the stan d ard m uffin. The appearance of the stan d a rd m u ffin was more acc e p tab le, as i t was rounded, w ith even

57 4 4 crumb and texture. All "muffins with DDG had a dense texture and were flat-topped. Reduced volumes in products w ith 36% DDG may be due to 'r some other variable besides p a rtic le size of the DDG. I t could be the re s u lt of le ss gluten available due to replacement of the flour with DDG. The ph s were w ithin a narrow range, since they had been adjusted by the addition of the neu tralizin g agent (NaHCOg) to. be close to the stan d a rd product. N either NDF nor p ro te in content of the DDG frac tio n had a sig n ifican t effect bn volume. The lip id content of each frac tio n was shown to have a marginally sig n ifican t effect (P=.044) on the volume of the baked muffin product. A lin e a r c o n tra st of l i p i d e f f e c t on volume fo r each f r a c tio n was perform ed to account f o r th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s in th e num ber of o b se rv a tio n s between l i p i d co n ten t and volume m eaurem ents. contrast found lip id to have no sig n ifican t effect on volume. This Lipids are known to influence the gas cell stru ctu re and s ta b ility in b atters and doughs (Barnes, 1983). Lipid composition of the flour, as well as the p ro p o rtio n of l i p i d to p ro te in content h elp s to determ ine the nature of the gas c e ll s tru c tu re. This e f f e c t may in flu e n c e the volume of the baked product. No c o n s is te n t r e la tio n s h ip s have been found between lip id content of flo u rs and baking performance, probably because of the dominant e f f e c t of p ro te in q u a lity d iffe re n c e s. In oatm eal m u ffin s, l i p i d added to the product form ula in the form of shortening may have overcome any differences th a t the lip id content of the DDG and flo u r may have had (Barnes, 1983).

58 45 Table 11. The effect of sieve frac tio n and grinding on volume and ph in oatmeal muffins containing 36$ DDG sample K. DDG Sample Volumea (cc) Combined mean volume3 (cc) I Combined mean pha Unfractionated, unground U nfractionated, ground 21 ± I ± 1 Combined 21a 6.45ab Sieve 16, unground ±.02 Sieve 16, ground Combined 24a 6.48a Sieve 35, unground Sieve 35, ground ±.04 Combined 22a 6.46a Sieve 60, un ground Sieve 60, ground Combined 23 a 6.42ab Sieve 80, unground 22 ± Sieve 80, ground 23 ± Combined 22a 6.28b Standard, no DDG 26 a a +.05 CU +1 C O avolume and ph values are the means of three batches. Values in the same column that do not share a common le t t e r (a,b) d iffe r sig n ifican tly, P<0.05. The siev e f r a c tio n of DDG in c o rp o ra te d had a s t a t i s t i c a l l y sig n ifican t effect on the ph of the baked muffin (P<0.01). The low est product ph was found w ith th a t using th e s m a lle s t DDG p a r t i c l e size (siev e 80). G rinding each siev e f r a c tio n produced a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t e f f e c t on ph (P< 05). The mean ph of a l l unground f r a c tio n s was 6.45 and the mean ph of a l l ground f r a c tio n s was A lthough s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t, th e m a g n itu d e of th e ph d iff e r e n c e s was not considered to be la rg e enough to s ig n if ic a n tly affe ct product quality.

59 46 Quick breads with 5% and 15% DDG sample K Oatmeal m uffins were baked w ith DDG sample K a t th e 5% and 15% replacement le v els in the unground and ground states. Mean volumes were analyzed to see i f at lower lev els of DDG replacement, p a rtic le size influenced volume (Table 12). Reducing the p a rtic le size of the DDG in th e m uffins by g rin d in g did not change m u ffin volume s ig n if ic a n tly when compared to m uffins baked w ith the un ground DDG sample (P>.05). Mean volumes ranged from 102 cc to 103 cc. Table 12. Volumes of oatmeal muffins u tiliz in g and 15% DDG sample K ground and unground. DDG Level and Form Volumea (cc) 5% unground % ground 103 ± % unground. 102 ± % ground 101 ± 6.8 a Volume values.are the means of ten samples. Quick breads with 36% DDG samples A. B. and I The p a rtic le size effect of DDG on volume was te sted in oatmeal muffins using three additional DDG samples (A, B and I) replacing 36% of the f lo u r in both ground and un ground form s. Volumes were not d if f e r e n t between m uffins baked w ith ground and unground DDG when u sin g any of the th re e sam ples (Table 13). The g rin d in g tre a tm e n t did not s ig n if ic a n tly a l t e r ph in m uffins baked w ith any of these three DDG samples (Table 13).

60 47 Table 13. Volume and ph of oatmeal muffins u tiliz in g DDG samples A, B, and I a t the 36% replacement level ground and unground. DDG sample.volumea (cc) PHa A unground 35 ± ±..01 A ground 33 ± ±.10 B unground 33 ± B ground 32 ± ±.09 I unground ±..03 I ground 34 ± ±.08 avolume and ph values are the means of three batches. Yeast breads with 33% DDG samnle K Yeast Breads Yeast r o l l s were analyzed to determ ine th e e f f e c t of p a r tic le siz e (siev e f r a c tio n ) and g rin d on volume (Table 14). G rinding the DDG fractio n s did not produce s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican tly d ifferen t volumes. The mean volumes among the fiv e fractio n s were 42 ± 5.3 cc for the yeast r o lls baked with unground DDG fractions and 44 ±. 5.5 cc for the yeast ro lls baked with ground DDG fractions. Yeast r o ll volumes were not affected by the sieve frac tio n of DDG th at was incorporated. A sig n ifican t difference was measured between th e volumes of the r o l l s using f r a c tio n s of DDG and of the standard r o l l (P<0. 1). The stan d ard r o l l volume was 55 cc compared w ith the lo w est DDG r o l l volume of 42 cc made w ith siev e f r a c tio n 16. Subjective examination of the standard yeast r o lls showed them to have h ig h er apparent volumes than those r o l l s using DDG. Although not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t, a ll r o l l s usin g ground DDG had s lig h tly higher volumes than a ll ro lls using the same fractio n of DDG unground,

61 48 except with r o lls using the coarsest sieve fractio n 16. No consistent trend in volumes was found however, from coarse to fin e s t fraction. Table 14.. The effect of sieve frac tio n and grinding on volume and ph in yeast r o lls containing 33% DDG sample K. DDG sample Volumea (cc) Combined mean volume3- (cc) pha, Combined mean ph3 U hfractionated, unground U nfractionated, 41 ± ground ±.06 Combined 43a 6.29a Sieve 16, unground 43 ± ±.06 Sieve 16, ground 41 ± ±.05 Combined. ' 42a 6.27 a Sieve 35, unground ±. 08 Sieve 35, ground 46 ± ± I Combined 43a 6.31a. Sieve 60, unground 43 ± ±.03 Sieve 60, ground 44 ± ±.05 Combined 44a 6.29a Sieve 80, unground 41 ± ±.04 Sieve 80, ground 45 ± ±.14 Combined 43a 6.14b Standard, no DDG CO -< O d\ O avolume and ph values are the means of three batches. Values in the same column that do not share a common l e t t e r (a,b) d iffe r sig n ifican tly, P<0.05. Since no volumes were sim ilar between yeast r o lls incorporating the various DDG fractio n s, no sig n ifican t effects were found on volume due to protein, lip id or fib e r content or ph. D ifferen ce in ph due to g rin d in g the DDG were not s ig n if ic a n t, but f r a c tio n s iz e of DDG did cause a d iffe re n c e (P<.01). Among th e fiv e DDG f r a c tio n s, the f i n e s t of siev e 80 had the lo w est ph (6.1 4) and i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y d if f e r e n t from a l l o th e rs in th e LSD m u ltip le comparison te st. As with quick breads, incorporation of ground DDG or

62 :. 49 ; of the f in e s t siev e f r a c tio n re s u lte d in a s lig h t decrease in the ph of the baked product, but the ph s were not considered low enough to affect product quality. Yeast breads with ^3% DDG samples A. B. and I The p a rtic le size effect of DDG on yeast r o ll volume was tested usin g th re e a d d itio n a l DDG sam ples (A, B and I) re p la c in g 33% of the f l o u r in both ground and unground fo rm s. Volum es w ere not s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican tly d ifferen t between yeast r o lls baked with ground and unground DDG when using any of the sam ples A, B, or I (Table 15). ph did not sig n ifican tly affect product volume in any of th e th re e DDG sam ples. As p re v io u sly noted, the ph v alu es were adjusted by the NaHCOg to the standard product. n e u tra liz in g.agent to be w ithin a range close The grinding treatm ent did not sig n ifican tly a lte r ph in yeast r o lls baked with any of these three DDG samples. Table 15. Volume and ph of yeast r o lls u tiliz in g 33% DDG samples A, B, and I, ground and unground. DDG Sample Volumea (cc) pha A unground ±.6 A ground 49 ± ±.02 B unground 46 ± B ground 47 ± I unground I ground 44 ± avolume and ph values are the means of two batches for sample A, and three batches for samples B and I. Volume and p a rtic le size d istrib u tio n Analysis of variance of the volumes of oatmeal muffins made with DDG sam ples A, B, I, and K found only m uffins baked w ith sample K to

63 50 be sig n ifican tly d ifferen t from the others (Table 16). Muffins with sample,k had the low est volumes. This DDG sample K contained a higher percentage of the coarser p a rtic le size than did sample I, but i t also coritaihed more of the fine p article size than was found in samples A and B. Table 16. Oatmeal muffin volumes and p a rtic le size d istrib u tio n in sieve fractio n s 16 and 80 for DDG samples A,B,I, and K. DDG Sampleb Volumea (cc) Percenta sieve 16 Percenta sieve 80 A b Od 2 +.5a B b c 4 ±..Ia I b 7 +.2a 13 ±.8c K a b 7 ±.3b avolume and percentages are the means of three batches and sievings. Values in the same column th a t do not share the same le tte r ( a,b,c,d) d iffer sig n ifican tly, P<0.01. bddg samples were incorporated a t the 36% level in the unground form. Analysis of variance of the volumes of yeast r o lls made with DDG samples A, B, I, and K found no s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t differences among any of the fo u r y e a st r o l l s, although the p a r tic le size d is tr ib u tio n of the fo u r sam ples d iff e r e d s ig n if ic a n tly (Table 17). As was shown in Table 6, sample K was sig n ifican tly d ifferen t from the average of sam ples A, B, and I in p a r t i c l e siz e d is tr ib u tio n. These d iff e r e n c e s however, do not show a c o n s is te n t a s s o c ia tio n between p a rtic le size and volume. DDG are a co n cen trated source of f ib e r which may cause a weakening in the product of the g lu te n th a t i s p re se n t in the wheat flour. These influences on the gluten proteins are there regardless of the p a rtic le size of the DDG. Bourbon DDG are composed prim arily of

64 51 corn which co n tain s no g lu te n p ro te in s (Bennion, I 980), but i f the grain composition of the DDG contributed some gluten proteins, they may have been denatured during processing. The lack of gluten and the weakening e f f e c t of the DDG f ib e r on the g lu ten p ro te in s p re sen t in the w heat f lo u r may be p rev en tin g h ig h er volumes in DDG baked products. The lack of starch in DDG may possibly have contributed to th e developm ent of poor dough s tr u c tu r e, which may also have contributed to the lower volumes found in the DDG baked products (Paul and Palmer, 1972). Table 17. Yeast r o ll volumes and p a rtic le size d istrib u tio n in sieve fractio n s 16 and 80 for DDG samples A,B,I and K. DDG Sample*3 Volumea (cc) Per centa sieve 16 Percenta sieve 80 A a Gd a B a 19 ± 1.4c 4 +.Ia I a 7 +.2a c K a 13 ± 1.1b 7 +.3b avolume and ph values are the means of two batches fo r sample A, and of three batches for samples B, I, and K, and percentages are the means of th ree sie v in g s fo r a l l sam ples. V alues in the same column th a t do not share th e same l e t t e r (a,b,c,d ) d i f f e r s ig n if ic a n tly, P<0.01. bddg samples were incorporated a t the 33% level in the unground form. Sodium Adjustments in Product Formulas Quick Breads The type and level of s a lt incorporated in oatmeal muffins with DDG s ig n if ic a n tly a ffe c te d th e product volume and ph (P<0.01), as shown in Table 18. Tukey1s m u ltip le com parison t e s t found th a t the volumes of a ll muffins with DDG were considered the same, but muffins with DDG with a f u ll sodium chloride (NaCl) level and muffins with DDG

65 52 w ith an equal replacem ent of potassium c h lo rid e (KCl) were also not found s ta tis tic a lly d ifferen t from the standard muffins. The ph s of a l l m uffins w ith DDG were not s t a t i s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t, a lth o u g h a l l e x c e p t th o s e w ith no s a l t had ph s s ta t is tic a lly lower than th a t of the standard muffin. Table 18. Volume and ph in DDG oatmeal muffins with s a lt v ariations. S alt Type and Level Volumea PHa Full NaCl, DDG 105 ±..Oab 6 23 ±. 06 a, No S alt, DDG 90 ± 13.2a 6.33 ±.03ab Reduced NaCl, DDG a 6.27 ±.03a Full KCl, DDG Oab 6.05 i. *2a Standard, no DDG, f u ll NaCl 112 ± 5.8b 6.58 ±..2b avolumes and ph values are the means of three batches. Values in the same colum n t h a t do n o t s h a re th e same l e t t e r ( a, b ) d i f f e r sig n ific a n tly, P<0.01. Y east B reads Tukey s m u ltip le com parison t e s t in d ic a te d th a t th e DDG yeast r o ll with no s a lt had a s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n tly (P<0.05) higher volume than th e y e a st r o l l s w ith reduced s a l t, f u l l NaCl or KCl, and also had a volume as high as the standard r o ll with no DDG (Table 19). All product ph s in c lu d in g th e stan d ard r o l l were not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n tly d if f e r e n t from one an o th er. These r e s u l t s do not in d ic a te a co n clu siv e r e la tio n s h ip between th e amount of NaCl in c o rp o ra te d and the volume in a DDG y e a st bread product. I t does appear th at in products which include NaHCOg as a neu tralizin g agent, le a v in g out the s a l t can r e s u l t in accep tab le product volumes. Substituting KCl for NaCl appears to have sim ilar e ffe c ts as using a f u ll NaCl level on volumes in DDG yeast bread products.

66 Table 19. Volume and ph in DDG yeast r o lls with s a lt v ariatio n s. 53 S alt Type and Level Volumea (cc) PHa Full NaCl 87 ± 15.3a 5.93 ±..03 No S alt 103 ± 2.9ab 6.00 ±.0 Reduced NaCl 90 ± 5.Oa 5.85 ±.05 KCl. 87 ± 10.4a Standard, no DDG, f u ll NaCl 127 ± 18.9b 5.97 ±..2 avolume and ph v a lu es a re th e means o f th re e batches. Values in th e same colum n t h a t do n o t s h a re th e same l e t t e r (a,b ) d i f f e r s ig n if ic a n tly, P<0.05. Percent Color Reflectance Color Reflectance in DDG Samples DDG sample K fractions As recommended by Agtron (1970), red and yellow were chosen for percent color reflectance analysis, as they most closely resemble the co lo r of the DDG sam ples. S ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s (PCO.OI) in th e p ercen t co lo r r e f l e c t a n c e o c c u r re d among u n f r a c t i o n a t e d and f r a c tio n a te d DDG K sam ples in both the unground and ground s ta t e (Table 20). Each f r a c tio n when ground, was l i g h t e r or had an in c re ase d p ercen t re fle c ta n c e of red and yellow. P ercent color reflectan ce increased lin e a rly from the coarsest frac tio n (sieve 16) to th e f in e s t f r a c tio n (siev e 80) of those l e f t in th e o rig in a l un ground s ta te. G rinding caused a l l f r a c tio n s to be more a lik e in percent reflectance in both the red and yellow mode. Generally, the f in e r p a r tic le s iz e s of DDG appeared to be h ig h er in r e fle c ta n c e, except in th e f i n e s t f r a c tio n (sie v e 80) where g rin d in g caused a lower reflectance of the sample.

67 Table 20. Percent color reflectance of DDG sample K frac tio n s 54 Percent RefleCtancea DDG Sample Red Yellow Unfractionated, unground 34.5 ±..5b 25.0 U nfractionated, ground 49.0 ±..5fg 40.0 ±..Od Sieve 16, unground 29.0 ±..6a a Sieve 16, ground 48.0 ±. I.Of 39.0 ±. I.5d Sieve 35, unground 34.0 ±_.3b 25.0 ±..6ab Sieve 35, ground 50.0 ±..Sg 40.0 ±..6d Sieve 60, unground 36.0 ±..6c 27.0 ±_.6b Sieve 60, ground 49.0 ±..3fg 39.5 ±.5d Sieve 80, unground 40.5 dh.9d 31.0 ±..6c Sieve 80, ground S e 37.0 i.3d on -H ap ercentages a re th e means of th re e sam ples. Values in th e same column th a t do not share a common l e t t e r (a,b,c,d,e,f,g ) d if f e r s ig n if ic a n tly, P<0.01. JO nnn Ramnles A. B. and I G rinding th e DDG caused s ig n if ic a n t color d iff e r e n c e s in DDG samples A, B, and I (P<0.01) in both red and yellow reflectance (Table 21). All ground samples had higher reflectance values in both modes over the unground samples, as was found with DDG sample K. Table 21. Percent color reflectance of DDG samples A, B, and I. Percent Reflectancea DDG Sample13 Red Yellow A unground 25.0 A ground 43.0 B unground 36.0 B ground 49.0 I unground 29.0 I ground ±..01 ±..6a 33.0 ±..3a ± a 39.0 ±.-. I a ± ± a 26.0 ±.. 3 a ^Percentages are the means of three batches. Ground sample with the l e t t e r a i s s ig n if ic a n tly d if f e r e n t than th e un ground sam ple of the same DDG, P<0.05.

68 55 Color Reflectance in Quick Breads Oatmeal muffins with nnc sample K fractio n s Table 22 shows th a t n e ith e r g rin d in g nor sie v in g the DDG'had a s ig n if ic a n t e f f e c t on yellow or red co lo r re fle c ta n c e of the baked m uffin. A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t co lo r d iffe re n c e was found between th e stan d ard m u ffin w ith no DDG and any m uffin co n tain in g a DDG fraction. The standard control muffin was observed as lig h te r in color thaa those muffins with DDG, probably due to the dark color of the DDG. ground, Although the raw DDG samples were sig n ifican tly lig h te r when once incorporated in to a muffin the color difference was not evident. Table 22. Percent color reflectance of oatmeal muffins containing 36% DDG sample K fractions. Percent Reflectancea DDG Fraction Used Red Yellow U nfractionated, unground a +. I.0a Unfractionated, ground e I.2a Sieve 16, unground 34.0 ± 1.9a I.9 a Sieve 16, ground a I.4a Sieve 35, unground 34.0 ±. «7a I.0a Sieve 35, ground 33.0 ±. I.Ta 25.0 ±. I.Ta Sieve 60, unground «0a a Sieve 60, ground a 26.0 ± I.5a Sieve 80, unground 33.0 ± I.Ta 26.0 ± 2.9a Sieve 80, ground I.8a I o8a Standard, no DDG 42.0 ± 2.6b 34.0 ± 1.4b P in CU ^P ercentages are the means of th re e batches. Values in the same column th a t do not sh are a common l e t t e r, a,b d i f f e r s ig n if ic a n tly, P<0.05.

69 56 Oatmeal muffins with nnn samples Ar B. and I Analysis of variance of red and yellow color reflectance means in muffins containing eith er A, B, or I unfractionated DDG samples in the ground and unground s t a t e showed a s ig n if ic a n t (P<0.05) d iffe re n c e only in muffins with DDG sample R, Table 23 shows m uffins with ground DDG sample B to have slig h tly (P<0.05) higher yellow reflectance than muffins with sample B in the unground state. Otherwise, grinding the DDG does not appear to a l t e r the q uick bread product color. All raw DDG samples had sig n ifican tly higher red or yellow reflectan ce when ground, but incorporation in to a muffin product only altered the color of the m u ffin w ith sample B. In c re ase d y ello w n ess was shown in the I m u ffin w ith ground DDG sample B, as was shown in th e raw ground DDG sample. Table 23. Percent color reflectance of oatmeal muffins containing 36% A, B, and I DDG samples un ground and ground. Percent Reflectance3 DDG Sample Usedb Red Yellow A unground 28.5 ± ±..2 A ground 27.0 ± ± 1.1 B unground ±.4 B ground 32.5 ± I ±.8a I unground 27.0 ± ±..6 I ground 27.0 ± ^P ercentages a re th e means of two batch es fo r DDG sam ple A, and of th ree b atches fo r DDG sam ples B and I. The ground sam ple w ith the le tte r a i s sig n ifican tly d ifferen t, P <0.0 5 than the un ground sample of the same DDG. ball DDG samples are in the unfractionated form.

70 57 Oatmeal muffins with s a lt variations A nalysis of v arian ce found s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s (P<0.05) in red and yellow reflectance among the fiv e muffins shown in Table 24. The stan d ard m u ffin had h ig h er red and yellow re fle c ta n c e over a l l muffins with DDG. Muffins with equal lev els of sodium chloride (NaCl) or potassium chloride (KCl) were d ifferen t from each other in percent red and yellow reflectance but were not d ifferen t from muffins with reduced NaCl or with no salt. Comparing the muffins with DDG, those w ith a f u l l NaCl le v e l had the lo w est co lo r r e f le c ta n c e, and the muffin with the same level of KCl had the highest color reflectance. Table 24. Percent color reflectan ce of oatm eal m uffins co n tain in g DDG sample K with s a lt variations. Percent Reflectancea S alt Type and Level Red Yellow Full NaCl a a Reduced NaCl 33.5 ± I.3ab 24.0 ± I.Oab No S alt 33.5 ±. 0.9ab ab Full KCl b b Standard, no' DDG c I.9c ap ercentages a re th e means of th re e batches. Values in th e same column that do not share a common l e t t e r (a,b,c) d iffe r sig n ifican tly, P<0.05. Color Reflectance in Yeast Breads Yeast r o lls with DDG sample K fractions Table 25 shows t h a t n e ith e r g rin d in g nor sie v in g th e DDG had a s ig n if ic a n t e f f e c t on yellow or red co lo r r e fle c ta n c e of the baked y e a st r o l l. The stan d ard y e a st r o l l w ith no DDG had s ig n if ic a n tly higher (P<0.05) yellow or red reflectance than any r o ll containing a

71 58 DDG fraction. Observation of the baked products found th a t except for siev e 80, a l l r o l l s w ith ground DDG f r a c tio n s were s l i g h t l y darker than those r o lls with unground DDG, unlike the color differences found i in the raw DDG f r a c tio n s. The r o l l s baked w ith the f i n e s t p a r tic le size of sieve fractio n 80, were slig h tly lig h te r when ground than when un ground. Differences observed among reflectance values in the raw ground DDG were not sig n ifican t when the DDG was incorporated in to a yeast r o ll product a t the 33% level. Table 25. Percent color reflectance of yeast r o lls containing 33% DDG sample K fractio n s. Percent Reflectance" a DDG Fraction. Used Red Yellow U nfractionated, unground Unfractionated, 34.5 ± I.6a + 2.2a ground a 26.5 ± 2.1a ' Sieve 16, unground 35.0 ±.5a a Sieve 16, ground 35.0 ±. I a 28.0 ±..3a Sieve 35, unground a 26.5 ± 2.1a Sieve 35, ground a 25.5 ±.4a Sieve 60, unground ± 1.0a a Sieve 60, ground I.4a 27.0 ± 1.3a Sieve 80, unground a 27.0 ±..5a Sieve 80, ground I.3a a Standard, no DDG b 45.5 ± 1.6b "^Percentages are the means of th ree batches. V alues in the same column th a t do not share the same l e t t e r (a,b) d iffe r sig n ifican tly, P<0.05. CXJ O Yeast ro lls with 33% DDG samples A. B. and I G rinding DDG sam ples B or I did not s ig n if ic a n tly a f f e c t re fle c ta n c e d iffe re n c e s in th e red or yellow mode (Table 26). Grinding DDG sample A produced a yeast r o ll with sig n ific a n tly lower

72 59 red and yellow re fle c ta n c e. The raw DDG sample A was l i g h t e r when ground, but once baked in to a y e a st bread, the ground DDG produced a r o l l t h a t was d a rk e r th a n th e r o l l c o n ta in in g u n ground DDG. T herefore, some DDG when ground, may a l t e r the f i n a l y e a st bread product color. Table 26. Percent color reflectance of yeast r o lls containing 33/6 DDG samples A, B, and I, unground and ground. Percent Reflectancea DDG Sample. Used ' Red Yellow A unground A ground e8& a B unground B ground I.7 I unground I I.1 I ground 28.5 ± I ± I.3 ^P ercentages a re the means of two batch es fo r DDG sample A and of th ree batches fo r DDG sam ples B and I. The ground sample w ith the l e t t e r a i s s ig n if ic a n tly d if f e r e n t than th e unground sam ple of the same DDG sample (P<0.05). Yeast r o lls with s a lt variations No s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e (P>0.1) was found in red or yellow r e fle c ta n c e between any of the m u ffin s w ith DDG in c o rp o ra tin g s a l t v a r ia tio n s (Table 27). The stan d ard y e a st r o l l had s ig n if ic a n tly increased red and yellow reflectance over a ll others (P<0.01). Dough S ta b ility 30% DDG, 70% Bread Flour The e ffe cts of sieving and grinding of the DDG on dough s ta b ility as measured by farinogram values was determined. Comparisons were made

73 60 among sie v e f r a c tio n s from coarse to fin e p a r t i c l e siz e, and w ith in each sieve frac tio n in the ground and unground states. Table 27. Percent color reflectance of yeast r o lls containing 33% DDG sample K and four s a lt v ariatio n s. Percent Reflectance3 S alt Type and Level Red Yellow Full NaCl I. 5 ei 28.0 ± I.0a ' Decreased NaCl a 30 e a 6 3- No NaCl 37.0 ±_.8a 28.5 ±..5a Full KCl 37.5 ± 1.4a I.3a Standard, no DDG, f u ll NaCl b b ^P ercentages a re the means of th re e batches. Values in th e same column that do not share a common l e t t e r (a,b) d iffer sig n ifican tly, PCO.OI. P article size of the DDG, as represented by sieve fraction, had a n early s ig n if ic a n t e f f e c t ( P=.054) bn the p e r c e n t o f w a te r absorption, as determined using farinogram values (Table 28). Fraction size might have been more sig n ifican t had the number of sample been la r g e r (n = 5). In th e unground f r a c tio n s, percent w ater a b so rp tio n increased lin e a rly as p a rtic le size decreased from frac tio n 16 to 80. In the ground fractio n s, percent water absorption was sim ilar among f r a c tio n s. G rinding the siev e f r a c tio n s in c re ase d s ig n if ic a n tly (P<0.05) the percent water absorption. Each ground frac tio n required more water than i t s corresponding unground fraction, but the increase was not dependent on the sieve frac tio n (p article) size. Arrival time measures the ra te a t which the w ater i s taken up by th e flo u r. A rriv al tim es were lo n g er in th e un ground f r a c tio n s of siev e 16 and 35 than in th e ir corresponding ground f r a c tio n s (Table

74 61 28). Larger p a rtic le sizes take longer to hydrate. The s im ila ritie s in a r r iv a l tim es in siev e f r a c tio n numbers 60 and 80 unground and ground a re probably because of th e i r a lread y fin e unground p a r tic le size. The d iffe re n c e s in a r r iv a l tim es shown from coarse to fin e f r a c tio n s in th e unground s ta t e in d ic a te s th a t DDG composed of extrem ely coarse p a r t i c l e s may cause lo n g er h y d ra tio n tim es when incorporated in to yeast bread doughs. Table 28. Farinograph values for yeast r o ll dough components of 70% bread flour and 30% DDG a t various p a rtic le sizes. Farinograph Values DDG Formb Percent A rriv al water time absorption3 (min.) Peak S ta b ility time (min. ) (min.) Departu re ime te r Val c r (m in.) Unfractiohated, unground 70.9a U nfractionated, ground Sieve 16 unground 71.Bab Sieve 16 ground : Sieve 35 unground 74.4bc Sieve 35 ground Sieve 60 unground 76.2bc Sieve 60.ground Sieve 80 unground 78.0c Sieve 80 ground avalues th a t do not share a common l e t t e r (a,b, c) d iffe r sig n ifican tly (P<0.1) among unground sieve fractions. bddg sample K-2 used in a ll measurements. Peak time or mixing time i s an indication of dough s ta b ility. I t is the point ju st before the dough begins to weaken. Peak tim es tend to increase as p a rtic le size decreases and as percent water absorption increases (DtAppolonia and Kunerthf 1984). Results in Table 28 show no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t in c re a se of peak tim es w ith d ecreasin g

75 62 i p a rtic le size. Longer departure times often indicate, stronger flo u rs (D1Appolonia and Kunerth, 1984). No consistent trends among fractions whether ground or unground in departure or s ta b ility tim es were shown. No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip was shown between p ercen t w ater ab so rp tio n and th e volume of the baked product (Table 29) a t each DDG f r a c tio n, w hether ground or not. A s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n was shown between percent protein of each sieve frac tio n and the p ercen t w ater a b so rp tio n in the un ground f r a c tio n s (P = 0.068). Had sam ple siz e (4) been la r g e r, th is r e la tio n s h ip m ight have been s ta tis tic a lly more s ig n ific a n t. P ercen t w ater a b so rp tio n in c re ase d.lin early with protein increases in a ll unground frac tio n s and in the ground f r a c tio n s w ith the ex cep tio n of sieve s iz e 80. G rinding the fractio n s produced sim ilar p a rtic le sizes among the sieve fractions, yet water absorption increased nearly lin e a rly in these fractio n s from \ coarse to fine sieve frac tio n sizes. These re s u lts suggest th a t the p ercen t w ater a b so rp tio n in c re a s e s may have been due more to the protein differences in each fractio n than from the change in p a rtic le size. No s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t difference was found between volumes of yeast ro lls, so comparisons between volume and farinogram values cannot be made Table 29). Some p o s itiv e c o rr e la tio n has been found between lo af volumes and valorim eter values using products made with wheat (D'Appolonia and Kunerth, 1984). The v a lo rim e te r value i s a q u a lity score based on the dough s developm ent (peak) tim e and tolerance to mixing (indicated by the departure time). No consistent change in valorim eter values were observed between siev e f r a c tio n s.

76 63 The h ig h e st v a lo rim e te r value was observed w ith siev e f r a c tio n 16, unground.! Based on a small number of observations, as p a rtic le size of DDG decreased, p ro te in co n ten t in c re a se d and more w ater was absorbed. Neither of these parameters affected e ith e r dough s ta b ility nor dough q u a lity. Bourbon DDG a re low or la c k in g in g lu ten, which probably influenced f a r i nograph data and baking values. Table 29. Farinograph, DDG composition, and baked product values of yeast r o ll dough components u tiliz in g DDG sample K of fiv e p a rtic le s iz e s. DDG Forma Percent protein Percent water absorption Baked product volume (cc) Valorimeter Unfractionated, unground U nfractionated, ground Sieve 16, unground Sieve 16, ground Sieve 35, unground Sieve 35, ground Sieve 60, unground Sieve 60, ground Sieve 80, unground Sieve 80, ground a DDG sample K-2 was used in a ll measurements. O S alt V ariations and 30% DDG, 70% Bread Flour Comparison of yeast r o ll volumes with farinograph percent water absorptions showed no s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t relatio n sh ip based on amount or type of s a lt used, nor was there a s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t difference among volumes compared to v a lo rim e te r v alu es (Table 30). The valorim eter value in the 2% NaCl formula was considerably higher than in the other two formulas. These data are the re s u lt of a small

77 64 number of observations but may indicate th a t NaCl incorporated a t the 2% level produces a more stable high q uality dough. NaCl may produce improved loaves over those using KCl salt. Table 30. Farinograph values for yeast r o ll dough components3 of three s a lt types and lev els. Farinograph values Yeast r o ll Percent Arrival Peak S tab il- Depar- Valor- S alt v o lume (cc)w ater tim e tim e ity tu re im e te r V ariation absorption (min) (min) (min) (min) 2% NaCl % NaCl % KCl adough components consisted of 70% bread flo u r and 30% DDG sample K in the unfractionated form. ' O rganoleptic Evaluation Quick and y east breads were ev alu ated by tra in e d and consumer ta s t e p a n e lis ts to determ ine d iffe re n c e s and a c c e p ta b ility on a p a rtic le size variable and on a s a lt variable. Consumer ta s te panel, quick breads P a rtic le Size E ffect Oatmeal m uffins co n tain in g 36% unground DDG or 36% ground DDG were sampled by 102 untrained panelists. A large number of judges (at le a st ) is required in a consumer panel due to the inexperience of the judges and the presence of many u n c o n tro lle d v a ria b le s (Campbell e t a l. 1979). Data analyzed by covariance methods showed th a t th e type of m uffin and the sex of the judge had no e f f e c t on the r a tin g but the

78 65 age of the judge did s ig n if ic a n tly (P<0.05) a f f e c t r a tin g r e s u l t s (Table 31). The mean r a tin g s were high fo r both m u ffin types. Muffins with unground DDG had a mean ra tin g of and muffins w ith ground DDG had a mean r a tin g of 7.08 ± 1.5, on a s c a le of 1-9, where i = d is lik e ex trem ely, and 9 = lik e ex trem ely (Appendix A). Rating of the muffins decreased by.1 for each increase in age group. Ages were grouped as follows: 5-10, 11-14, 15-19, 20-29, 30-39, 40-49, g0-59, 60-69, 70-79, and Table 31. Results of covariance analysis of muffins ra tin g type, sex and age interactions. Probability of a Larger F-Value Type Sex Age Rating s ^Significant a t the P<0.05 lev el. The l i t e r a t u r e in d ic a te s th a t young c h ild re n a re able to d is c rim in a te among t a s t e s r e l i a b l y (Thomas and M urray, 1980) which su g g ests th a t r a tin g s of products by young c h ild re n should not be d ifferen t than ratin g s by adults. The correlation found here between decreased age and in c re a se d r a tin g may be due to th e f a c t th a t children and the younger members of the population p refer whole grain p roducts. Recent in tro d u c tio n in to th e m arketplace of whole g ra in products may have enabled the younger people a greater exposure, and thus an increased preference for them as compared to the older people.

79 66 Consumer ta ste panel, veasfc breads Yeast r o l l s co n tain in g 33% unground DDG or 33% ground DDG were sampled by 94 u n tra in e d p a n e lis ts. Data analyzed by covariance methods showed th a t muffin type and age of judge had no e ffe c t on the ra tin g, but the sex of the judge s ig n if ic a n tly (P<0.01) a ffe c te d r a tin g r e s u l t s (Table 32). The mean r a tin g s were m oderate fo r both r o l l types. R o lls w ith unground DDG had a mean r a tin g of and r o l l s w ith ground DDG had a mean r a tin g of 6.35 ± The mean ra tin g by females was and the mean ra tin g by males was Table 32. Results of covariance analysis of yeast r o lls ra tin g type, sex and age in teractions. Probability of a Larger F-Value Type Sex Age Rating * sss ignificant a t the P<0.01 lev el. Consumers did not p re fe r baked p ro d u cts w ith DDG in th e ground form. Products with ground DDG had a slig h tly sticky mouthfeel. In both quick and y e a st breads they ra te d those w ith unground DDG s lig h tly h ig h er, although the d iffe re n c e was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y sig n ifican t. This suggests th a t DDG may be successfully incorporated in to a leavened product w ith o u t g rin d in g or m illin g. These r e s u lts in d ic a te d t h a t consumers lik e baked p ro d u cts w ith DDG a t le a s t slig h tly or moderately and th at quick breads with DDG may be preferred over yeast breads with DDG.

80 67 S alt V ariations Trained ta ste panel, quick breads The Schfeffe model fo r p aired com parison d ir e c tio n a l t e s t s in d ic a te d a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e (P<0.01) among m u ffin s w ith v ariatio n s of s a lt type and level (Table 33). Panel members could not t e l l the difference between those muffins that contained e ith e r fu ll NaCl le v e ls, reduced NaCl le v e ls, or no s a lt. P a n e lis ts could t e l l the d iffe re n c e and s ig n if ic a n tly p re fe rre d (P<0.05) each of those muffins over muffins containing a f u ll level of KCl s a lt replacement (Table 34). Table 33. Analysis of variance re s u lts of paired comparison te s ts of oatmeal muffins with DDG and s a lt variations. Variance DF SS MS F-Ratio Order effects I Main e ffe cts OO Total Error ^ S ig n ific a n t a t the P<0.01 level. Table 34. Tukey s m u ltip le com parison t e s t r e s u l t s of p aired comparison te s ts of oatmeal muffins with DDG and sa lt variatio n s. Pairsa Observed main effects difference A, B.2 A, C 375 A, D.975 B, C.175 B,D 1.175^ C, D 1.350b asamples in p a ir s a re as fo llo w s: A = f u l l NaCl; B = no s a l t ; C = reduced s a lt; D = fu ll KCl. b Differences greater than the c ritic a l value of.6322 are sig n ifican t a t the P<0.05 lev el.

81 68 The hedonic (lik e-d islik e ) ratin g s of the four muffin types were s ig n if ic a n tly d if f e r e n t due to m u ffin type (P<0.0 5) and judge (P<0.01). Table 35 shows th e mean r a tin g s fo r the m u ffin s and the differences due to muffin type, by Tukey1S m ultiple comparison test. M uffins w ith reduced NaCl and m u ffin s w ith KCl d if f e r e d from each other but neither differed from those w ith f u ll NaCl or with no salt. The highest ra tin g was 5.25 for the muffins with reduced NaCl and the lo w e st r a tin g was 4.0 fo r the m u ffin s w ith f u l l KCl. The hedonic sc a le ranged from 1-9, where I = d is lik e extrem ely and 9 = lik e extremely (Appendix A). The mean ra tin g for a ll muffins was 4.8 which in d icates a low acceptability of the products. The paired comparison t e s t showed th a t the m u ffin w ith f u l l KCl s a l t rep lacem en t was sig n ifican tly d ifferen t from the other three, muffin types, but in the hedonic te st, although rated lowest, i t was only found sig n ifican tly lower than the muffin with reduced NaCl. Table 35. Hedonic r a tin g s of oatm eal m uffins c o n tain in g v arying types and lev els of s a lt. Muffin Type Hedonic Rating3 Full NaCl 4.8 ±. 2.3ab Reduced NaCl 5.3 ± 1.7b No S alt 5.1 ± I.8ab Full KCl 4.0 ± 1.9a av alues are the means of ten r a tin g s. same l e t t e r (a,b) d iffe r sig n ifican tly, Values th a t do not share the P<0.05. Four sig n ifican tly d ifferen t groups of judges were found based on hedonic ratin g s (Table 36). Some judges, on the average, disliked a ll sam ples (ju d g es I and 2) and some ju d g es lik e d a l l sam ples (judges 9

82 69 and 10). There was a s ig n if ic a n t judge e f f e c t and a s ig n if ic a n t tre a tm e n t e f f e c t, but the in te r a c tio n between the two was not s ig n if ic a n t. These r e s u l t s show th a t even though some p a n e lis ts disliked or liked a ll samples, m uffins s t i l l d iff e r e d s ig n if ic a n tly due to the s a lt type and level incorporated. Table 36. judge Judge e f f e c t.o n hedonic r a tin g s of oatm eal m uffins containing varying types and lev els of s a lt. Hedonic Ratinga 2.3 ±.5a 3.1 ±. 1.2ab 3.9 ±.1.5 ab.c 5.0 ±..Sbcd Tbcd 5.3 ± 3. Ibcd bcd bcd 5.9 ±. I.Tod 6.5 ±..Td av alues are the means of four r a tin g s. Values th a t do not share the same l e tte r (a,b,c,d) d iffe r sig n ifican tly, P<0.05. Trained ta ste panel, yeast breads i ' - ' The Schfeffe model fo r p aired com parison d ir e c tio n a l t e s t s indicated an in sig n ifican t F -ratio fo r yeast r o lls containing the four s a l t le v e l v a r ia tio n s (Table 37). Panel members could not t e l l the difference between any of the yeast ro lls. Although no difference between r o lls was indicated by the paired com parison t e s t, a n a ly s is of the mean hedonic r a tin g s in d ic a te d d iff e r e n c e s in l i k e - d i s l i k e. The type of y e ast r o l l and th e judge sig n ific a n tly (P<0.01) affected the hedonic ratin g s of the four types of y e ast r o l l s. The mean r a tin g s fo r the r o l l s and th e d iffe re n c e s

83 70 due to type of ro ll by Tukey1s m ultiple comparison te s t are shown in T ab le 3 8. R o lls w ith re d u c e d NaCl and r o l l s w ith KCl w ere sig n ifican tly d ifferen t from each other but each were not differen t from the o th er two r o l l s. The r o l l w ith reduced NaCl was ra te d the h ig h e st, a t 5.75, and th e r o l l w ith KCl was ra te d th e lo w e st, a t 4.1. The mean r a tin g of a ll r o l l s was 5.0 in d ic a tin g no stro n g lik e s or d islik es. Table 37. Analysis of variance re s u lts of Schfeffe1S model for paired comparison te s ts of yeast r o ll s with DDG and s a lt v ariations. Variance DF SS MS F-Ratio Order effects I Main e ffe c ts Total Error Table 38. Hedonic ratin g s of yeast r o lls containing varying types and lev els of s a lt. Yeast Roll Type Hedonic Ratinga Full NaCl 4.6 ± 1.8ab Reduced NaCl I.8b No S alt ab Full KCl 4.1 ±_ 1.6a av alues a re th e means of ten r a tin g s. same l e t t e r (a,b) d iffer sig n ifican tly, Values th a t do not share the P<0.05. Tukey1-S m u ltip le com parison t e s t found th a t y e a st r o l l hedonic r a tin g s were s ig n if ic a n tly (P<0.05) grouped by two ty p es of judges (Table 39). One sig n ifican t group rated the products low (judge I) and another sig n ifican t group rated the products moderately high (judges 8, 9, and TO). Although, on the average, some judges did not lik e any

84 71 sam ples and some lik e d a l l sam ples, the type and le v e l of s a l t incorporated was sig n ifican t enough to affect the rating. Table 39. Judge effect on hedonic ratin g s of yeast r o lls containing varying types and lev els of s a lt. Judge ' Hedonic Ratlnga I 3.0 dl.9a ±..8ab on ±. I *6ab ±. 2.2ab I.5ab I.6ab b ±; I. 2b ±.5b av alues a re th e means of four ra tin g s. same l e t t e r (a,b) d iffe r sig n ifican tly, Values th a t do not share the P<0.05. The re s u lts from both trained ta ste panels suggest th a t DDG baked products w ith reduced NaCl or w ith no s a l t may be p re fe rre d over products with f u ll formula NaCl levels. Recent concern over the lin k between high sodium consum ption and h y p erten sio n may have caused consumers to decrease NaCl in tak e. Consumers may be le a rn in g to a d ju s t to and p re fe r low er sodium or NaCl le v e ls in th e i r d ie t. KCl does not appear to be an acceptable s a lt replacement a t a f u ll level in DDG baked products. Therefore, quick breads and yeast breads w ith KCl were not included in the consumer ta ste panels. The other three types were ra te d s im ila r ly enough to be in clu d ed in the consumer panel.

85 72 Consumer ta ste panel, quick breads Three oatmeal muffins containing 36% unground DDG and e ith e r fu ll NaCl, reduced NaCl or no s a l t, and a fo u rth stan d ard oatm eal m uffin containing no DDG and a fu ll NaCl level were sampled by 100 untrained p a n e l i s t s. C o v arian c e a n a l y s i s showed t h a t ty p e of m u ffin sig n ific a n tly (P<0.01) affected the ra tin g of the muffins, but neither age nor sex of the judge had a sig n ifican t effect (P>0.1), as is shown in Table 40. Table 40. Results of covariance analysis of muffins ra tin g type, sex and age interactions. Probability of a Larger E-Value Type Sex Age Rating.0015** ^ S ig n ific a n t a t the P<0.01 lev el. The mean r a tin g s by m uffin type a re shown in Table 41. The DDG muffin w ith f u ll NaCl s a lt was rated s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican tly lower than the other three muffins by the LSD m ultiple comparison method a t th e 0.05 l e v e l. The more c o n s e r v a tiv e T ukey's t e s t found no sig n ifican t difference among muffin types. Consumer ta ste panel, veast breads Three yeast r o lls containing 33% unground DDG and e ith e r a fu ll NaCl level, reduced NaCl, or no sa lt, and a fourth standard r o ll with no DDG and a f u l l NaCl le v e l were sampled by 96 u n tra in e d p a n e lis ts. Covariance a n a ly s is showed th a t type of y e a s t r o l l and sex of the judge sig n ifican tly (P<0.01) affected the ra tin g re su lts, but age did

86 73 not (Table 42). The mean r a tin g s by type a re shown in Table 43. Again, the r o ll with reduced s a lt had the highest ratin g, although i t was only ra te d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n tly d if f e r e n t from the r o l l w ith f u l l NaCl s a l t. The r o l l w ith f u l l NaCl s a l t was n o t sig n ifican tly d ifferen t from the. r o ll with no s a lt, but was d ifferen t from the other two ro lls. This suggests th at yeast r o ll s with no s a lt and f u l l NaCl s a l t may not be as d e sira b le. The average r a tin g by females for a ll four yeast r o ll types was 6.84, and the average ra tin g by males was These r e s u l t s in d ic a te th a t qu ick breads and y e a st breads w ith DDG are lik e d as w ell as, or b e tte r than those w ith o u t DDG. Breads incorporating DDG may be more acceptable i f the s a lt (NaCl) level is reduced to provide a sodium le v e l th a t com pensates fo r the e x tra sodium added by the n eutralizing agent, NaHCOg. Table 41. Mean ra tin g s of oatmeal muffins with s a lt v ariatio n s by consumer ta ste pan elists. Oatmeal Muffin Type Mean Rating Full NaCl 6.29* Reduced NaCl 7.Olb No S alt 7.07b Standard, no DDG, f u ll NaCl 7.06b abvalues that do not share the same superscript d iffe r sig n ifican tly, P<0.05.

87 74 Table 42. Results of covariance analysis of yeast r o lls ra tin g type, sex and age in teractions. Probability of a Larger F-Ratio Type Sex Age Rating ««.6955 ^^Significant a t the P<0.01 lev el. Table 43. Mean ratin g s of yeast r o lls with s a lt v ariatio n s by consumer ta ste pan elists. Yeast Roll Type Full NaCl, DDG Reduced NaCl, DDG No S alt, DDG Standard, no DDG, fu ll NaCl Mean Rating 5.78* 7.135b 6.125ab 7.031b abvalues th a t do not share the same superscript d iffer sig n ifican tly, P<0.05. Conclusions The addition of NaHCOg to baked products with DDG have resu lted in improved volumes by in c re a s in g th e ph to th e le v e l found in th e stan d ard product w ith o u t DDG, both in th is study and by OsPalka and Bidet,. (1986). Protein, lip id and fib e r (NDF) content did not affect product volumes. Q u a n tita tiv e and q u a lita tiv e a n a ly s is of l i p i d com position of th ree of the DDG sam ples (B, I, and K) used in baking in d ic a te d only minor d eg rad atio n of l i p i d co n ten t in DDG held in fro z e n sto rag e. L in o le ic a cid was s lig h tly reduced in the TAG bands of a ll sam ples, and in the FFA band of one sample (K), probably due to some oxidation. M arginal d iffe re n c e s in l i p i d com position were observed in two d if f e r e n t batches of DDG from the same p la n t, w ith d iffe re n c e s

88 75 occurring in the TAG percentage and in the lin o le ic acid percentage of the TAG and FFA bands. These d iff e r e n c e s were found in two of the three DDG samples tested, (I and K) and may be due to the lim itatio n s in h e re n t in TLC and GLC tech n iq u es or to s u b tle d iffe re n c e s in original grain used and in processing between batches. The p a r t i c l e siz e d is tr ib u tio n of bourbon DDG v a rie s among producers. The d is tr ib u tio n and percen tag e of coarse and fin e p a rtic le s w ithin a DDG sample was not associated with fin a l volumes of quick and y e a st breads. P roducts baked w ith four d if f e r e n t siev e f r a c tio n s of one DDG (K) did not vary s ig n if ic a n tly in volume, nor did p ro d u cts baked w ith the siev e f r a c tio n s in th e ground form. In c o rp o ra tin g four d if f e r e n t u n fra c tio n a te d DDG (A, B, I, and K) in th e ground form produced p ro d u cts w ith no s ig n if ic a n tly d if f e r e n t volumes than products u tiliz in g the DDG in the unground form. G rinding th e DDG produced an in c re a se d p ercen t r e fle c ta n c e (a lig h te r color of the raw m aterial), but once incorporated in to a baked product, g rin d in g had l i t t l e e f f e c t on th e product co lo r. Quick breads and y e a st breads baked w ith DDG were d arker in co lo r than a standard bread with no DDG. There w6s no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e among r a tin g s of quick and yeast breads containing unfractionated DDG in the ground or unground form by a consumer ta s te panel. Consumers in d ic a te d acceptance of both products. These r e s u l t s in d ic a te th a t consumers accep t DDG in baked products regardless of differences in p a rtic le size of DDG used or of product volume or color. G rinding or m illin g of DDG does not appear necessary.

89 76 Calcium carbonate was in e ffe c tiv e in ra isin g the ph of DDG both in t i t r a t i o n procedures and when baked in to quick breads. Quick or yeast breads incorporating DDG and baked with KCl s a lt su b stitu te to decrease sodium content were not found acceptable in flavor by trained t a s t e p a n e lis ts, although the products did have a c c e p ta b le ph's and volumes. Baked products containing reduced NaCl lev els to produce a sodium level which compensated for the sodium in NaHCOg were found to be more acceptable by trained p an elists and by consumers than products containing a f u ll amount of NaCl. Consumers rated baked products with DDG and reduced s a l t or w ith o u t s a l t as a cc e p tab le as the stan d ard product w ith no DDG and a f u l l NaCl le v e l, although th e standard products had s lig h tly in c re a se d volumes. Yeast breads may be more desirable with reduced s a lt lev els than with no salt. These re s u lts in d ic a t th at the volumes in chemically and yeast leavened DDG products did not influence ta ste panel ratings. I f NaHCOg i s used to n e u tr a liz e th e o th erw ise a c id ic product baked w ith DDG, i t may be necessary to decrease the o v e ra ll sodium co n ten t by reducing th e amount of NaCl s a l t in th e form ula fo r increased product acceptability.

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93 80 MSUSTAT by Lund, R.E CP/M V ersio n 2.20, S e r ia l # Montana S ta te 'U n iv e rsity, Bozeman. Newman, C.W. and Gras, P.W U tiliz a tio n of b arley d i s t i l l e r s d ried g ra in s in swine grow ing d ie ts. P roceedings, W estern Section American Society of Animal Science 34. OfPalka, J.M., and B id et,i.s U npublished data. Dept, of Home Economics, Montana State Univ., Bozeman. Packowski, G.W "Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," 2nd edition, volume I. Interscience Publishers, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, NY. P arfrey, P.S., W right, P., Goodwin, F.J., Vandenberg, M.J., Holly, J.M.P., and Evans, S.J.W Blood p re ssu re and hormonal changes follow ing a lte ra tio n in dietary sodium and potassium in mild e sse n tial hypertension. The Lancet. 1: 59. Paul, P.C. and Palm er, H.H "Food Theory and A p p lic a tio n s, John Wiley and Sons, I n c., New York, NY. Pomeranz, Y Fiber in breadmaking. Bakers Dig. 51: 94. Pomeranz, Y., Shogren, M.D., and Finney, K.F Im proving breadm aking p r o p e rtie s w ith g ly eo lip id s. L Improving by-products with sucroesters. Cereal Chem. 46: 503. Pomeranz, Y., Shogren, M.D., and Finney, K.F White wheat bran and brewer s spent grains in high-fiber bread. Bakers Dig. 50 (6): 35. Prentice, N Brewers spent grain in high fib e r muffins. Bakers Dig. 52(5): 22. Prentice, N., and D Appolonia, B.C High-fiber bread containing brew er s spent g rain. C ereal Chem. 54(5): Prentice, N. and Refsguard, J.M Enzymic hydrolysis of brewers spent g rain. J. Am. Soc. Brew. Chem. 36 (4): 196. P r e n tic e,n., K is s e ll, L.T., Lindsay, R.C., and Yamazaki, W.T High-fiber cookies containing brewers spent grain. Cereal Chem. 55(5): 712. Ranhotra, G.S A n u tritio n experiment: how good i s calcium in bread? AIB. 111(12): I. R anhotra, G.S., G elro th, J.A., T orrence, F.A., Bock, M.A., W in te rrin g e r, G.L., and Bates, L.S N u tritio n a l c h a ra c te ris tic s of d i s t i l l e r s sp en t g ra in. J. Food S ci. 47: 1184.

94 81 Robertson, J.R and Van Soest, P.J D ietary fib e r-e stim a tio n in concentrate and f e e d s tu f f s. J. Aninn S c i. 45(Suppl 1): 245. Roth, N.J.L., W atts, G.H., and Newman, C.W B eta-glucanase as an aid in measuring neutral detergent fib e r in barley kernels. Cereal Chem. 58: 245. Salovaara, R 1982a. Effect of p a rtia l sodium chloride replacement by other s a lts on wheat dough rheology and breadmaking. Cereal Chem. 59(5): 426. Salovaara, H b. Sensory l i m it a ti o n s to replacem ent of sodium with potassium and magnesium in bread. Cereal Chem. 59(5): 327. S a tte r le e, L.D The chem ical, fu n c tio n a l, and n u tr i tio n a l c h a r a c te r iz a tio n of p ro te in c o n c e n tra te s from d i s t i l l e r 's g ra in s. Cereal Chem. 53 (5): 739. Schoeneman, R.L., Dyer, R.H. and E arl, E.M A n a ly tic a l p r o f ile of stra ig h t bourbon whiskies: alcoholic beverages. J. Assoc. Off. A gric. Chem. 54(6): SCOGS Evaluation of the health aspects of sodium chloride and potassium c h lo rid e as food in g re d ie n ts. Bureau of Foods, FDA, Dept, of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C. Snedecor, G.W. and Cocharan, W.G " S t a t i s t i c a l M ethods,"7th e d., Iowa State U niversity Press, Ames, Iowa. SPSS, Inc " S ta tis tic a l Package for the Social Sciences, Users Guide," McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY. S tro h, M., S e ts e r, C.S., B ruinsm a, B., Shogren, M., and R e d lin g e r, P1A. I 985. Sensory in te r a c tio n s of fo rm u la tio n s to mask potassium chloride flavor using Morton L ite S alt mixture in white pan breads. Cereal Chem. 62(2): 103. Townsley, P.M Uses fo r brewery w aste products. M aster Brew. Assoc. Am. Tech. Q. 4(2): 262. Townsley, P.M Preparation of commercial products from brew er's w aste g ra in and tru b. M aster Brew. Assoc. Am.Tech. Q. 16(3): 130. Tsen, C.C., Hoover, W.J. and P h il lip s, D H ig h -p ro tein breads. Use of sodium stearo y l-2 -lacty late and calcium stearoyl-2- la c ty la te in th e ir production. Bakers Dig. 45(2): 20. Tsen, C.C., Eyestone, W., and Wever, J.L E v alu atio n of the q uality of cookies supplemented with d is tille r s ' dried grain flo u rs. J. Food S ci. 47(2): 684.

95 82 Thomas, M.A., Murray, F.S Taste perception in young children. Food Tech. 34(3): 38. U.S. Dept, of H ealth and Human S erv ices Promoting health/ p rev en tin g d ise a se ; o b je c tiv e s fo r the natio n. Government. Printing Office, W ashington, D.C. F a l l ; 73. V etter, J.L Technology of sodium. Cereal Foods World. 26(2); 64. V etter, J.L F iber as a food in g re d ie n t. Food Tech. 38(1); 64. W all, J.S., Wu, Y.V., Kwolek, W.F., Bookwa l t e r, G.N., and Warner, K Corn D is tille r s * g ra in s and o th er by -p ro d u cts of alcohol production in blended foods. I. Compositional and n u tritio n a l studies. Cereal Chem. 61(6); 504. Whedon, G.P Effects of high calcium intakes on bones, blood and s o f t t i s s u e : r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c a l c iu m in ta k e to b a la n c e in o steo p o ro sis. Fed. Proc. 18; Wu, Y.V., Sexson, K.R., and W all, J.S P r o te in -ric h re sid u e from corn alco h o l d is tilla tio n L fractio n atio n and characterization. Cereal Chem. 58(4); 343. Wu, Y.V., and S trin g fellow, A.C Corn d is tille r s ' dried grains with solubles and corn d is tille r s ' dried grains: dry f r a c tio n a tio n and composition. J. Food Sci. 47: Wu, Y.V., Sexson, K.R., and Lagoda, A.A P r o te in -ric h re s id u e from wheat alcohol d is tilla tio n : fractio n atio n and characterization. Cereal Chem. 61(5): 423. Wyatt, C.J., and Ronan, K Evaluation of potassium chloride as a s a lt su b stitu te in bread. J. Food Sci. 47: 672.

96 83 APPENDICES

97 APPENDIX A Taste Panel Recording Sheets

98 85 PAIRED COMPARISON DIFFERENCE TEST KAtC DATE Product Esamine theoe two samples for I. Io there o difference in 2. Yes No Indicate the degree of difference in, two oampleo by checking one of the following statem ents: is extremely better than is much better than is slig h tly b etter than Ho difference is slig h tly better than is much b etter than is extremely b e tte r than between the two oaaploo? between the Check One 3. Rate the of the samples. Good F a i r P o o r Good F a i r _ P o o r Comments:

99 8 6 Booth Number Food Evaluation T est Product Check the appropriate block: SAMPLE NUMBER Like Extremely Like Very Much Like Moderately Like Slightly Neither Like nor Dislike Dislike Slightly Dislike Moderately Dislike Very Much Dislike Extrmely Oanments: Name Date

100 87 PRODUCT: DATE: DIRECTIOiIS: PLEASE PLACE A CUECR ( ) USXT TO THE PHRASE THAT BEST DESCRIBES IIOU YOU FEEL ABOUT EACB OF THE PRODUCTS. PRODUCT PRODUCT LIKE EXTREMELY LIKE VERY IiUCU LIKE IiODEEATELY LIKE SLIGHTLY IIEITUER LIKE IlOR DISLIKE DISLIKE SLIGHTLY DISLIKE IiODERATELY DISLIKE VERY IMCU DISLIKE EXTREMELY LIKE EXTREMELY LIKE VERY IMCU LIKE IiODERATELY LhaS SLIGHTLY HEITilEIi LIKE KOR DISLIKE DISLIKE SLIGHTLY DISLIKE MODERATELY DISLIKE VERY IMCH DISLIKE EXTREMELY SEX: AGE:

101 8 8 PRODUCT: DATE: DIRECTIOWD: PLEASE PLACE A CHECK (V ) WEXT TO THE PHRASE THAT BEST DESCRIBES UOU YOU FEEL ABOUT EACH OF THE PRODUCTS. PRODUCT PRODUCT PRODUCT PRODUCT LIKE EXTREMELY LIKE VERY MUCH LIKE MODERATELY I I LIKE SLIGHTLY HEITHER LIKE HOR DISLIKE DISLIKE SLIGHTLY. DISLIKE MODERATELY DISLIKE VERY IKJQl DISLIKE EXTREMELY I SEX:. AGE:.

102 APPENDIX B T itr a tio n Curves and Quick Breads U sing Calcium Carbonate

103 ' CQC03 (g) F igure 5. T itr a tio n of calcium carbonate (CaCO?) in dry gram w eights a g a in st 112 g DDG sam ple K in 400 ml room tem perature d i s t i l l e d w ater. Added 100 ml d i s t i l l e d w ater.

104 T coco j (g) Figure 6. T itr a tio n of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in dry gram w eights a g a in s t 20 g DDG sam ple K in d i s t i l l e d w ater a t b o ilin g tem perature. Added 50 ml d i s t i l l e d w ater. +Added 25 ml d i s t i l l e d w ater.

105 92 OOO 3000 JN CcCOi (ml) F ig u re 7. T i t r a t i o n o f.in c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te (CaCOo) a g a i n s t 50 g DDG sam ple K in 200 ml d i s t i l l e d w ater.

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