EVIDENCE FOR INTRINSIC REFLECTION ASYMMETRIC

Size: px
Start display at page:

Download "EVIDENCE FOR INTRINSIC REFLECTION ASYMMETRIC"

Transcription

1 A B S T R A C T EVIDENCE FOR INTRINSIC REFLECTION ASYMMETRIC N U C L E A R SHAPES Paul Cottle Yale University 1986 Most of the important advances in the description of collective nuclear phenomena have been based upon the assumption of a reflection symmetry relative to a plane perpendicular to the symmetry axis of the nucleus. It is known, however, that reflection asymmetric shapes, such as alpha clustering configurations and dynamic octupole deformations, can be found in many regions of the periodic table. Isotopes of Ra and Th have long been known to exhibit characteristics suggesting the possibility that static intrinsic reflection asymmetric shapes are present. We examine the nature of reflection asymmetry in Ra and Th by first studying, in detail, three nuclei, 216Rn, 219Ra and 220Ra, produced in the 14C+208Pb fusion reaction using several techniques of gamma ray spectroscopy. Level spectra have been constructed for these nuclei to excitation energies of 2.1 MeV, 4.9 MeV and 3.6 MeV, respectively. Second, we discuss our results within the context of the systematic behavior of other Rn, Ra and Th isotopes and its relationship to predictions of alpha particle cluster, octupole vibration and static octupole deformation models. Third, we find that several observables seen in the Ra-Th-region are qualitatively similar to those found in the

2 Sm-Gd region. Finally, we see that the excitation spectra observed in the mass 217 and 219 Ac and Ra isotopes are described quite well in terms of a weak particle-core coupling model which is generally successful for weakly deformed nuclei. We have found clear evidence for further reflection asymmetric shapes in the light actinide region. We conclude, however, that because of the similarities of the above models we are at present unable to distinguish which model is most appropriate for the description of these nuclei. In addition, we find that the weak coupling model is appropriate for the description of odd-a nuclei in the weakly deformed Ra-Ac region.

3 EVIDENCE FOR INTRINSIC REFLECTION ASYMMETRIC N U C L E A R SHAPES A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Yale University in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Paul Davis Cottle June 1986

4 To Mom, Dad and Tracey

5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have been fortunate enough to have had the support of many outstanding people over the last four years. Unfortunately, I can only mention some of them here. I must first thank Prof. D. Allan Bromley, who contributed in many ways to this work. His endless encouragement, which meant so much coming from a man of his stature, was indispensible in both the research leading to this dissertation and the process of making decisions about my future. Prof. Bromley has my eternal gratitude. Prof. Moshe Gai's wide knowledge of the field of nuclear physics has served as an inspiration to me as well as a valuable resource for my own learning. The contents of this dissertation strongly reflect his "big picture" approach to nuclear physics. I also wish to acknowledge the contributions that Prof. Jolie Ciz- ewski has made to my education and to my self-confidence. I hope that Jolie1s influence on my work, in the future as well as the present, will be obvious to anyone familiar with her accomplishments. I Prof. John Shriner has also played an important role in both my life and my short career. I owe John a great debt for his friendship and help., My fellow graduate students made working in this Laboratory a pleasant and rewarding experience. I have been fortunate to share a hallway with John Ennis, Mario Ruscev, Mark Drigert, Steve Sterbenz, Anna Hayes, Patty Blauner, Laurie Baumel, Kevin Hubbard, Mike Kaurin, John O'Connor, Niki Becker, Bronek Dichter, Steve Rugari, Zhiping Zhao, Paul Magnus,

6 Kooverji Gamadia and (how could I ever forget) Tzu-Fang Wang. Prof. Robert Weller, Dr. Mari Weller, Dr. Nicholas Tsoupas and Prof. Peter Parker have also helped to make this lab a good place to work. I was fortunate to have worked with outstanding collaborators from Brookhaven National Laboratory and SUNY-Stony Brook: Dr. John Olness, Dr. Ernest Warburton, Con Beausang, Dr. Mubina Quader, Dr. Lars Hild- ingsson. Dr. William Piel, Jr., and Prof. David Fossan. I also wish to thank as a group the very helpful people who make up the accelerator operations and support staffs at Brookhaven. Finally, I would like to thank all of. those people who have kept our Laboratory running so smoothly over the past few years, especially Kenzo Sato, Phil Clarkin, Dick D'Alexander, Teddy Duda, Ed Stepensky, Tom Barker, Richard Wagner, Charles Gingell, Al Jeddry, Joe Cimino, Ray Comeau, Nitza Hauser, Rita Bonito, Clare Buckley, Annalee Jacunski, Karen DeFelice, Marvin Curtis, Sandy Sicignano and Mary Anne Schultz. Without these people, the rest of us would have been almost completely lost. /

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... iii T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S... V T A B L E O F F I G U R E S... v i i i T A B L E O F T A B L E S... x i 1. I N T R O D U C T I O N O V E R V I E W O F T H E O R Y A L P H A P A R T I C L E C L U S T E R I N G I N H E A V Y N U C L E I A N D T H E H Y B R I D M O D E L O C T U P O L E V I B R A T I O N A L B E H A V I O R I N E V E N - E V E N N U C L E I S T A T I C O C T U P O L E D E F O R M A T I O N S I N E V E N - E V E N N U C L E I A F E W C O M M E N T S O N T H E R E L A T I O N S H I P B E T W E E N T H E A L P H A C L U S T E R A N D S T A T I C O C T U P O L E M O D E L S W E A K A N D I N T E R M E D I A T E C O U P L I N G I N T R A N S I T I O N A L O D D - A N U C L E I S T R O N G C O U P L I N G I N O D D - A N U C L E I A N D T H E O C T U P O L E N I L S S O N M O D E L P A R I T Y D O U B L E T S I N R E F L E C T I O N A S Y M M E T R I C O D D - A N U C L E I E X P E R I M E N T A L P R O C E D U R E G E N E R A L F E A T U R E S

8 3. 2 H E A V Y I O N F U S I O N - E V A P O R A T I O N R E A C T I O N S E X P E R I M E N T A L D E T A I L S A N A L Y S I S A N D R E S U L T S P R E V I O U S W O R K O N R n, 2 2 R a A N D R a E X C I T A T I O N F U N C T I O N M E A S U R E M E N T S R a L E V E L S P E C T R U M R n L E V E L S P E C T R U M R a L E V E L S P E C T R U M D I S C U S S I O N S Y S T E M A T I C B E H A V I O R O F E V E N R n, R a a n d T h N U C L E I I N T E R P R E T A T I O N O F R a A N D T h I S O T O P E S I N T E R M S O F A N A L P H A P A R T I C L E C L U S T E R M O D E L S T U D Y O F E V E N R a I S O T O P E S T H R O U G H C A L C U L A T I O N S W I T H T H E U ( 6 ) U ( 4 ) H Y B R I D M O D E L P R E D I C T I O N S F O R T H E O C T U P O L E D E G R E E O F F R E E D O M I N 2 2 R a A C O M P A R I S O N O F T H E Z = I S O T O P E S W I T H T H E Z = O N E S A C O M P A R I S O N O F I - A N D 3 S T A T E S I N T H E R E G I O N S 5 6 < Z < 8 2 A N D Z > S Y S T E M A T I C B E H A V I O R O F O D D - A N U C L E I N E A R A = S U M M A R Y A N D C O N C L U S I O N S

9 B I B L I O G R A P H Y

10 TABLE OF FIGURES Collective Nuclear Motion... P r o p o s e d M o l e c u l a r B a n d i n R e d u c e d A l p h a P a r t i c l e D e c a y W i d t h s A l p h a P a r t i c l e C l u s t e r a n d O c t u p o l e C o n f i g u r a t i o n s P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f G d U A l p h a P a r t i c l e D e c a y C h a i n P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f R a P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f 2 0 N e C l a s s i c a l U ( 6 ) a n d U ( 4 ) R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s. 2 7 S p e c t r o s c o p y o f D y n a m i c a l L i m i t s o f U ( 4 ) 3 1 S c h e m a t i c H y b r i d M o d e l E x a m p l e P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f E r B ( E 1 ) / B ( E 2 ) v s. J f o r L a n t h a n i d e N u c l e i. 3 8 M o l l e r a n d N i x M a s s C o m p a r i s o n G r o u n d S t a t e P o t e n t i a l E n e r g y S u r f a c e s S p e c t r o s c o p y o f O c t u p o l e C o n f i g u r a t i o n s. 4 4 B a c k b e n d i n g P l o t f o r T h W e a k C o u p l i n g M u l t i p l e t s W o o d s - S a x o n S i n g l e P a r t i c l e L e v e l s L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f A c l 8 i x a ( 1 6 0, x n ) E x c i t a t i o n F u n c t i o n... Compton Suppression Electronics

11 G a m m a - g a m m a T i m i n g E l e c t r o n i c s G a m m a - g a m m a E n e r g y E l e c t r o n i c s i 4 c p b E x c i t a t i o n F u n c t i o n L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f R a R a G a m m a - g a m m a G a t e s R a A n g u l a r D i s t r i b u t i o n S p e c t r u m R n G a m m a - X - r a y G a t e R n G a m m a - g a m m a G a t e L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f R n R a G a m m a - g a m m a G a t e s i g R a A n g u l a r D i s t r i b u t i o n S p e c t r u m L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f R a G r o u n d S t a t e S p i n s o f E v e n - Z, O d d - N Z = N u c l e i S y s t e m a t i c B e h a v i o r o f R a E n e r g y L e v e l s I ( x ) v s. fiw f o r R a, R a S y s t e m a t i c B e h a v i o r o f T h E n e r g y L e v e l s S y s t e m a t i c B e h a v i o r o f E n e r g y L e v e l s i n N = I s o t o n e s a n d R n I s o t o p e s... R a B ( E 1 ) / B ( E 2 ) R a t i o s T h B ( E 1 ) / B ( E 2 ) R a t i o s A l p h a P a r t i c l e H i n d r a n c e F a c t o r s f o r Z = E v i d e n c e f o r A l p h a P a r t i c l e C l u s t e r i n g E p i n H y b r i d M o d e l C a l c u l a t i o n... Hybrid Model Calculation Results

12 P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f S m P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f S m P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f S m P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f S m P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f S m P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f G d P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f G d P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f G d P a r t i a l L e v e l S p e c t r u m o f G d S y s t e m a t i c B e h a v i o r o f Sm E n e r g y L e v e l s S y s t e m a t i c B e h a v i o r o f G d E n e r g y L e v e l s S y s t e m a t i c B e h a v i o r o f R a E n e r g y L e v e l s G r o u n d S t a t e A l p h a P a r t i c l e D e c a y W i d t h s f o r L a n t h a n i d e a n d A c t i n i d e N u c l e i B ( E 1 ) / B ( E 2 ) V a l u e s f o r L a n t h a n i d e a n d A c t i n i d e N u c l e i G l o b a l R a n g e o f V a l u e s f o r B ( E 1 ) / B ( E 2 ) E ( 3 " ) v s. N f o r L a n t h a n i d e a n d A c t i n i d e N u c l e i n N i l s s o n D i a g r a m f o r Z = N i l s s o n D i a g r a m f o r N = N i l s s o n D i a g r a m f o r Z > N i l s s o n D i a g r a m f o r N > E ( 3 ) v s. N f o r L a n t h a n i d e a n d A c t i n i d e N u c l e i P E ( 3 _ " ) - E ( l " ) v s. N f o r L a n t h a n i d e a n d A c t i n i d e ' 1 1 n N u c l e i

13 5.33 E(31-)-E(l1") vs. E(41+)/E(21+) for Lanthanide a n d A c t i n i d e N u c l e i P a r t i c l e - C o r e C o u p l i n g f o r A = a n d

14 TABLE OF TABLES 4. 1 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R a G am m a R a d i a t i o n B ( E 1 ) / B ( E 2 ) V a l u e s f o r R a C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R n G am m a R a d i a t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R a G am m a R a d i a t i o n B ( E 1 ) / B ( E 2 ) V a l u e s f o r R a P a r a m e t e r s U s e d i n V i b r o n M o d e l F i t s

15 1. INTRODUCTION On a simple level, the low energy spectra of the 2500 experimen t a l l y o b s e r v e d n u c l e i m a y b e c l a s s i f i e d a s b e l o n g i n g t o o n e o f t w o c a t e g o r i e s. M e m b e r s o f t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o a s h e l l m o d e l a n a l y s i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h a t a p p l i c a b l e t o e l e c t r o n i c b e h a v i o r i n a t o m s. I n c o n t r a s t, e a c h n u c l e a r m a n y - b o d y s y s t e m i n t h e s e c o n d c a t e g o r y s e e m s m o s t n a t u r a l l y t r e a t e d a s a c l a s s i c a l l i q u i d d r o p w h i c h d i s p l a y s v a r i e d v i b r a t i o n a l a n d s t a t i c a l l y d e f o r m e d r o t a t i o n a l m o d e s. C l e a r l y, h o w e v e r, t h i s i s a c a r i c a t u r e ; m o s t n u c l e i d i s p l a y e l e m e n t s o f b o t h t y p e s o f b e h a v i o r. E a r l y s t u d i e s o f t h e n a t u r a l i s o t o p i c a b u n d a n c e s o f h e a v y n u c l e i r e v e a l e d d i s t r i b u t i o n s s t r o n g l y p e a k e d a t n e u t r o n o r p r o t o n n u m b e r s o f 5 0, 8 2 a n d T h e s e " m a g i c " n u m b e r s, a s t h e y w e r e n a m e d, w e r e a l s o h i g h l i g h t e d b y t h e s t r i k i n g b e h a v i o r e x h i b i t e d b y n e u t r o n s e p a r a t i o n e n e r g i e s, n e u t r o n c a p t u r e c r o s s s e c t i o n s a n d e l e c t r i c q u a d r u p o l e m o m e n t s ( M a 4 8 ). M e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s, a s w e l l a s o t h e r o b s e r v a b l e s, w e r e e x p l a i n e d q u i t e s u c c e s f u l l y i n t e r m s o f a s p h e r i c a l n u c l e a r s h e l l m o d e l a s l o n g a s N a n d Z w e r e w i t h i n a f e w n u c l e o n s o f m a g i c n u m b e r s ( M a 5 5 ). H o w e v e r, n u c l e i i n w h i c h N a n d Z w e r e b o t h q u i t e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e m a g i c n u m b e r s s h o w e d e x c i t a t i o n s p e c t r a w h i c h c o u l d n o t b e r e p r o d u c e d w i t h s i m p l e s h e l l m o d e l s. T h i s w a s f i r s t n o t i c e d i n t h e s t u d y o f n u c l e a r e l e c t r i c q u a d r u p o l e m o m e n t s, w h e r e v a l u e s m u c h l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e p o s s i b l e f o r a s i n g l e v a l e n c e n u c l e o n w e r e o b s e r v e d ( T o 4 9 ). A n u c l e a r c o l l e c t i v e p i c t u r e b a s e d o n t h e c o h e r e n t m o t i o n o f m a n y n u c l e o n s a n d t h e

16 -2- r e s e m b l a n c e o f t h i s s y s t e m t o a c l a s s i c a l l i q u i d d r o p w a s b u i l t u p o n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n ( R a 5 0, B o 5 2, B o 7 5 ). I n t h e m o s t g e n e r a l s e n s e, t h e s h a p e o f a l i q u i d d r o p c a n b e w r i t t e n i n t e r m s o f s p h e r i c a l h a r m o n i c s a s R = R n { 1 + E a. ( t ) Y (e,</>) } ( 1. 1 ) 0 Jim Urn * w h e r e t h e a. ( t ) a r e i n g e n e r a l t i m e d e p e n d e n t m e a s u r e s o f t h e v a r i o u s Hm m u l t i p o l e d e f o r m a t i o n s o f t h e s h a p e a n d R ^ i s t h e m e a n r a d i u s. B e c a u s e o f t h e r e l a t i v e i n c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o f n u c l e a r m a t t e r, t h e m o n o p o l e t e r m i s o f l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n t h e s t u d y o f l o w e n e r g y n u c l e a r s p e c t r a. F u r t h e r, t h e d i p o l e t e r m c o r r e s p o n d s t o a s i m p l e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e n u c l e u s w i t h n o c h a n g e i n i n t r i n s i c s h a p e. T h u s, t h e l o w e s t o r d e r c o l l e c t i v e m o d e, a s w e l l a s t h e d o m i n a n t o n e, i s t h e q u a d r u p o l e m o d e. W e w i l l r e s t r i c t o u r d i s c u s s i o n t o a x i a l l y s y m m e t r i c s h a p e s, a n d d e f i n e, i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l m a n n e r, a n e w s e t o f s h a p e v a r i a b l e s, 6, b y w R = R q ' { 1 + Z 3 ^ ( 0, * ) J ( 1-2 ) w h e r e R Q i s t h e r a d i u s o f a s p h e r e w i t h t h e s a m e v o l u m e a s t h e n u c l e a r s h a p e. B e c a u s e o f t h e d o m i n a n c e o f t h e q u a d r u p o l e m o d e t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d i c t a b l e a n d t h e r e l a t i v e w e a k n e s s o f o t h e r m u l t i p o l a r i t i e s, m o s t v e r s i o n s o f t h e c o l l e c t i v e m o d e l d e v e l o p e d i n t h e 3 7 y e a r s s i n c e t h i s

17 -3- p i c t u r e c a m e t o t h e f o r e h a v e d e a l t e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h t h e q u a d r u p o l e d e g r e e o f f r e e d o m. S m a l l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e s h a p e f r o m h e x a d e c a p o l e t e r m s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e l a s t t w e n t y y e a r s ( A p 7 0, H e 6 8 ). A s a n e x a m p l e o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e, w e c a n. p o i n t o u t t h a t i n t h e m o s t d e f o r m e d h e a v y n u c l e i a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n t h e g r o u n d s t a t e, w h i l e v a l u e s a s l a r g e a s c a n b e f o u n d. A n i n t r i n s i c s h a p e c o m p o n e n t c a n b e e i t h e r o s c i l l a t o r y ( d y n a m i c a l l y d e f o r m e d, o r v i b r a t i o n a l ) o r n o n - o s c i l l a t o r y ( s t a t i c a l l y d e f o r m e d ). T h e e n e r g y s p e c t r u m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s i m p l e s t c a s e o f v i b r a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r, h a r m o n i c o s c i l l a t i o n, s h o w s a s e r i e s o f e q u a l l y s p a c e d a n d d e g e n e r a t e m u l t i p l e t s. A s t a t i c a l l y d e f o r m e d r o t o r g i v e s r i s e t o a s p e c t r u m o f s t a t e s w h o s e e n e r g y e i g e n v a l u e s o b e y a J ( J + 1 ) r u l e. A n u m b e r o f e x a m p l e s o f c o l l e c t i v e n u c l e a r m o t i o n a r e s k e t c h e d i n f i g u r e B e f o r e , n u c l e a r c o l l e c t i v e m o d e l s w e r e b u i l t u p d i r e c t l y f r o m g e o m e t r i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m n u c l e a r s h a p e s u c h a s t h a t i n e q u a t i o n ( 1. 2 ). I n t h e m i d ' s, a n a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f n u c l e a r c o l l e c t i v e m o t i o n w a s d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d t h e a l g e b r a i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e d y n a m i c s y m m e t r i e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e q u a d r u p o l e m o d e s o f t h e n u c l e u s. T h i s m o d e l, t h e I n t e r a c t i n g B o s o n M o d e l ( I B M ) ( A r 7 5, A r 7 6, A r 7 8, A r 7 9 ), h a s p r o v e n t o b e u s e f u l f o r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a w i d e r a n g e o f n u c l e a r s t r u c t u r e p h e n o m e n a. S i m i l a r a l g e b r a i c m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d t o m o l e c u l a r b e h a v i o r a t b o t h t h e n u c l e a r a n d a t o m i c l e v e l s ( l a 8 1 a, l a 8 1 b, l a 8 2 a, V a 8 2 ). T h e g e n e r i c n a m e a p p l i e d t o e a c h o f t h e s e m o d e l s i s S p e c t r u m G e n e r a t i n g A l g e b r a ( S G A ). I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s u c c e s s e s o f t h e s h e l l m o d e l f o r s p h e r i c a l n u c l e a r s y s t e m s a n d t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i c t u r e f o r n u c l e i r e m o v e d f r o m m a g i c

18 F i g u r e 1. 1 C l a s s i c a l d e p i c t i o n s o f c o l l e c t i v e n u c l e a r p h e n o m e n a.

19 NUCLEAR C O LLECTIV ITY FOOTBALL DOORKNOBS NEUTRONS PROTONS NEUTRONS PROTONS ROTATIONS TRANSLATIONS TORSIONS DIPOLE QUADRUPOLE OCTUPOLE VIBRATIONS MOLECULAR ị >i

20 n u m b e r s, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s h e l l m o d e l f o r d e f o r m e d n u c l e i w a s a n a t u r a l o n e. N i l s s o n ' s o r i g i n a l d e f o r m e d s h e l l m o d e l c a l c u l a t i o n s ( N i 5 5 ) m e t w i t h g r e a t s u c c e s s i n p r e d i c t i n g t h e s p i n s o f g r o u n d s t a t e s o f o d d - A n u c l e i a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g, f r o m a m i c r o s c o p i c p o i n t o f v i e w, o f m a n y o t h e r o b s e r v a b l e s i n d e f o r m e d n u c l e i. O v e r t h e l a s t t w e n t y y e a r s, s i g n i f i c a n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n h e a v y i o n a c c e l e r a t o r s, h i g h r e s o l u t i o n g a m m a r a y d e t e c t o r s a n d l a r g e s o l i d a n g l e d e t e c t o r a r r a y s f o r t h e s t u d y o f h i g h m u l t i p l i c i t y g a m m a r a y c a s c a d e s h a v e s t i m u l a t e d t h e s t u d y o f t h e n u c l e u s a t h i g h a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m ( d e V o 8 3 ). J u s t a s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f d e f o r m a t i o n i n t h e n u c l e a r s y s t e m c h a n g e s t h e f o r m o f t h e n u c l e a r s h e l l m o d e l, s o a l s o t h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e n u c l e u s i n a r o t a t i n g f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e m o d i f i e s t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s i n g l e p a r t i c l e o r b i t a l s. T h e m o s t s t r i k i n g e f f e c t o f h i g h a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m o n t h e n u c l e u s i s t h e p r o g r e s s i v e l o s s o f p a i r i n g c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n o p p o s i t e l y r o t a t i n g n u c l e o n s, r e f l e c t i n g C o r i o l i s e f f e c t s a n d c e n t r i f u g a l l y i n d u c e d d e f o r m a t i o n c h a n g e s. W i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e C r a n k e d S h e l l M o d e l b y B e n g t s s o n a n d F r a u e n d o r f i n ( B e 7 9 a, B e 7 9 b ), i t b e c a m e p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e p a i r i n g f o r c e a n d t h e m o m e n t o f i n e r t i a o f t h e n u c l e u s a t h i g h a n g u l a r m o m e n t a. C o n s e q u e n t l y, a s u b s t a n t i a l k n o w l e d g e o f s i n g l e p a r t i c l e o r b i t a l s a t h i g h a n g u l a r m o m e n t a w a s g a i n e d. A l l o f t h i s w o r k, h o w e v e r, r e l i e d o n t h e p r e s e n c e, i n t h e i n t r i n s i c n u c l e a r s h a p e, o f a s y m m e t r y c o m m o n t o b o t h q u a d r u p o l e a n d h e x a d e c a p o l e m u l t i p o l a r i t i e s a n d i n d e e d i n h e r e n t i n a l l e v e n m u l t i p o l a r i t i e s. I f a p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e s y m m e t r y a x i s o f t h e q u a d r u p o l e s h a p e i s d r a w n, i t i s c l e a r t h a t a r e f l e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h i s p l a n e i s a s y m m e t r i c

21 -6- o n e f o r a n y n u c l e u s w h o s e s h a p e c a n b e d e s c r i b e d e n t i r e l y b y e v e n s p h e r i c a l h a r m o n i c s. T h e b r e a k i n g o f s u c h a n i n t r i n s i c r e f l e c t i o n s y m m e t r y i s s i g n a l l e d i n t h e l o w e n e r g y e x c i t a t i o n s p e c t r u m o f a h e a v y n u c l e u s i n t w o w a y s. T h e f i r s t s i g n a t u r e i s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s o f a c o l l e c t i v e o r i g i n ( i n s t e a d o f v i a t h e m e c h a n i s m o f s i n g l e p a r t i c l e p r o m o t i o n w i t h i n t h e s h e l l s t r u c t u r e ). S u c h s t a t e s c a n n o t b e g e n e r a t e d b y s h a p e s c o m p o s e d e x c l u s i v e l y o f e v e n m u l t i p o l a r i t i e s. T h e s e c o n d s i g n a t u r e f o r r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e t r y i n h e a v y n u c l e i i s t h e p r e s e n c e o f u n u s u a l l y s t r o n g g a m m a r a y t r a n s i t i o n s o f o d d e l e c t r i c m u l t i p o l a r i t i e s, m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y d i p o l e, b e t w e e n q u a n t u m s t a t e s o f t h e n u c l e u s. T h e t w o m e c h a n i s m s f o r p r o d u c i n g r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e t r i c s h a p e s w h i c h w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s w o r k l e a d t o t h e s e e n h a n c e d e l e c t r i c d i p o l e ( E l ) t r a n s i t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s. S t r o n g E l t r a n s i t i o n s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t g i v e n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e d i p o l e t e r m i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e n u c l e a r s u r f a c e ( 1. 2 ). B e c a u s e o f t h i s a b s e n c e, t h e e l e c t r i c d i p o l e o p e r a t o r i s d e p e n d e n t i n f i r s t o r d e r u p o n t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e c e n t e r o f n u c l e a r c h a r g e f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f m a s s. S u c h a s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s i n t h e g i a n t d i p o l e r e s o n a n c e o f t h e n u c l e u s, a p h e n o m e n o n w h i c h i s f o u n d a t e x c i t a t i o n e n e r g i e s o f 1 5 M e V a n d a b o v e ( G o 4 8 ) ; i n t h i s m o d e, t h e p r o t o n a n d n e u t r o n f l u i d s o s c i l l a t e b a c k a n d f o r t h c o h e r e n t l y a n d c o l l e c t i v e l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o o n e a n o t h e r ( s e e f i g u r e 1. 1 ). T h e c e n t e r o f m a s s r e m a i n s s t a t i o n a r y a t t h e g e o m e t r i c c e n t e r o f t h e n u c l e u s, b u t t h e c e n t e r o f c h a r g e i s f o u n d a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p r o t o n f l u i d, w h i c h o s c i l l a t e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e n t e r o f m a s s. In parallel, the study of molecular resonances in heavy ion inter-

22 a c t i o n s l e d t o t h e d i s c o v e r y t h a t i n t h e c a s e s o f 1 2 C C a n d 1 2 C r e s o n a n c e s a t e n e r g i e s c l o s e t o t h e C o u l o m b b a r r i e r ( t h e e n e r g y r e q u i r e d t o o v e r c o m e t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c r e p u l s i o n b e t w e e n t w o n u c l e i ), t h e d a t a c o u l d b e c o r r e l a t e d i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f a n S G A i n w h i c h t h e v e c t o r c o n n e c t i n g t h e c e n t e r s o f t h e t w o i o n s i s t r e a t e d a l g e b r a i c a l l y ( E r 8 1, l a 8 1 a, R u 8 4 ). I n t h i s t r e a t m e n t, c a l l e d t h e V i b r o n m o d e l, t h e s e p a r a t i o n v e c t o r c o n s t i t u t e s a d i p o l e d e g r e e o f f r e e d o m. T h i s m o d e l a l s o m a k e s t h e i n t u i t i v e l y p l a u s i b l e p r e d i c t i o n o f e n h a n c e d E l t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n m o l e c u l a r s t a t e s o f o p p o s i t e p a r i t y i n a n o n - s e l f c o n j u g a t e d i n u c l e a r s y s t e m, a s y s t e m i n w h i c h t h e c h a r g e - t o - m a s s r a t i o s o f t h e t w o c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e m o l e c u l e a r e d i f f e r e n t ( c o n s e q u e n t l y s e p a r a t i n g t h e c e n t e r o f c h a r g e o f t h e s y s t e m f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f m a s s a n d g i v i n g t h e m o l e c u l e a n e l e c t r i c d i p o l e m o m e n t ). H o w e v e r, n e g a t i v e p a r i t y m o l e c u l a r s t a t e s d o n o t e x i s t i n 1 2 C C, a n d t h e s e l f - c o n j u g a t e n a t u r e o f t h e 1 2 C s y s t e m d i s a l l o w s E l t r a n s i t i o n s t o ' f i r s t o r d e r. T h i s l e d G a i a n d c o l l a b o r a t o r s t o e x a m i n e l i g h t n u c l e a r s y s t e m s w i t h n o n - z e r o i s o s p i n i n a s e a r c h f o r t h e p r e d i c t e d e n h a n c e d E l t r a n s i t i o n s. G a i e t a l. o b s e r v e d t h a t E l t r a n s i t i o n s i n a n d 1 0 B e w e r e b y f a r t h e s t r o n g e s t i n e v e n m a s s l i g h t n u c l e i, a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y m a d e a d e t a i l e d s p e c t r o s c o p i c s t u d y o f v i a 1 4 C ( a, 2 T ) a n d 1 4 C ( 7 L i, t j f ) r e a c t i o n s w i t h t h e r e s u l t s s h o w n i n f i g u r e 1. 2 ( G a 8 3 a, R u 8 4 ). T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p r e - f o r m e d a l p h a p a r t i c l e s i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v i o r o f l i g h t n u c l e i ( A < 3 0 ) h a s b e e n k n o w n s i n c e t h e ' s ; t h i s c l u s t e r i n g b e h a v i o r c a n l e a d t o b o u n d n o n - s e l f c o n j u g a t e d i n u c l e a r m o l e c u l a r s y s t e m s. A s a n e x a m p l e w e c a n c o n s i d e r t h e n u c l e u s 1 8 0, i n w h i c h t h e d i n u c l e a r a l p h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n w o u l d b e

23 F i g u r e 1. 2 A p r o p o s e d a l p h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r m o l e c u l a r b a n d i n ( G a 8 3 a ).

24 -8-0 cm =l25 (x 2 ) r f ~ I 5 % 4 (T~80 KeV) NONRESONANT T kevx E a (MeV) 4 c - 3 T=8 kev 2+ r= I kev T <2.5keV n + l70 I. 0 2 = 2O% 0 2=O.2% x10 W.u. 15 W.u. t i i i J I L 0.5 do* /d 7i LA STIC^7^^ ^ a +I4C 5.26 r- 0.9x 10"2 W.u W.u x10 2 W.u o$ 4 P - 2h a +,4C / J (J + l)

25 4H e + 14C. F i g u r e 1. 2 sh o w s a p r o p o s e d b a n d o f s t a t e s i n 180 i n w h ic h t h i s d i n u c l e a r a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n may p l a y a m a j o r r o l e (G a 8 3 a ). T h i s b a n d d e m o n s t r a t e s th e tw o s i g n a t u r e s o f r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e try t h a t we h a v e d i s c u s s e d, lo w l y i n g n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s a n d e n h a n c e d i n t r a b a n d E l t r a n s i t i o n s. A t h i r d s i g n a t u r e t h a t f o l l o w s d i r e c t l y fr o m th e a l p h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g c o n c e p t i s th e p r e s e n c e o f l a r g e a lp h a p a r t i c l e d e c a y w i d t h s. T h i s s i g n a t u r e i s q u i t e s t r i k i n g l y d e m o n s t r a t e d i n 180, w h e re t h e s e w id t h s h a v e b e e n m e a su re d v i a r e s o n a n t a lp h a p a r t i c l e s c a t t e r i n g (A j 8 3 ). I t b e a r s e m p h a s is, h o w e v e r, t h a t i n n u c l e i s u c h a s 180, t h i s c l u s t e r s t r u c t u r e c o e x i s t s w i t h b o t h s h e l l a n d m ore common r e f l e c t i o n symmet r i c c o l l e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e a n d t h a t r e s i d u a l i n t e r a c t i o n s r e s u l t i n a d m ix t u r e s o f a l l t h r e e i n d i f f e r e n t q uan tu m s t a t e s. T h i s h a s th e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t a l t h o u g h th e s i g n a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e a c h o f th e a b o v e m e n t io n e d s t r u c t u r e s c a n be i d e n t i f i e d, t h e y w o u ld n o t be e x p e c t e d t o a p p e a r i n th e c l a s s i c a l fo rm t h a t w o u ld be p r e s e n t w ere o n l y a s i n g l e ty p e o f s t r u c t u r e i n v o l v e d. P r o m p te d b y th e o b s e r v a t i o n o f n u c l e a r d e c a y i n r a r e e a r t h a n d a c t i n i d e n u c l e i t h r o u g h th e e m i s s i o n o f a n a lp h a p a r t i c l e, a d e b a t e h a s c o n t in u e d t o t h i s d a y a b o u t w h e th e r a l a r g e p r o b a b i l i t y f o r a lp h a p a r t i c l e d e c a y n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l i e s th e e x i s t e n c e o f p r e - f o r m e d a lp h a p a r t i c l e s a t th e n u c l e a r s u r f a c e. F i g u r e 1.3 d i s p l a y s r e d u c e d g r o u n d s t a t e a l p h a p a r t i c l e d e c a y w i d t h s (d e d u c e d fr o m m e a s u r e d l i f e t i m e s ) f o r h e a v y n u c l e i a c r o s s th e p e r i o d i c t a b l e. The l a r g e s t a lp h a p a r t i c l e d e c a y w i d t h s a r e fo u n d j u s t a b o v e th e n e u t r o n m a g ic n um be rs 82 a n d T h e r e f o r e, i t w o u ld be i n t u i t i v e l y p r o b a b le t o f i n d a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s -

26 F i g u r e 1.3 C o m p i l a t i o n o f r e d u c e d a lp h a p a r t i c l e d e c a y w id t h s fr o m (R o 8 3 ). The 218Ra w id t h h a s b e e n a d j u s t e d t o c o n fo r m t o th e r e c e n t r e s u l t o f (R a 8 6 ).

27 (A )// (212 p 0 ) CV1CJ N E U T R O N N U M B E R O F A L P H A E M IT T E R DATA C O M P IL E D B Y R O E C K L et o L. G S I 0 1

28 -11- tering configurations in these regions. I t i s i m m e d ia t e ly a p p a r e n t t h a t s u c h a c o n f i g u r a t i o n n e c e s s a r i l y b r e a k s r e f l e c t i o n sy m m e try ( s e e f i g u r e 1. 4 ). F u r t h e r, t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n, i n a h e a v y n u c le u s, w o u ld g i v e an i n t r i n s i c e l e c t r i c d i p o l e moment i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y s im p le w ay. The a lp h a p a r t i c l e h a s tw o p r o t o n s a n d tw o n e u t r o n s, g i v i n g a c h a r g e t o m a ss r a t i o o f 1 / 2. The h e a v y c o r e n u c l e u s, h o w e v e r, a lw a y s h a s m ore n e u t r o n s t h a n p r o t o n s a n d a c h a r g e t o m a ss r a t i o o f l e s s t h a n 1 / 2. T h e r e f o r e, th e c e n t e r o f c h a r g e o f th e n u c le u s w i l l be c l o s e r t o th e a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r th a n th e c e n t e r o f m a s s. The h i g h e r e l e c t r i c m u l t i p o l a r i t i e s o f s u c h a c o n f i g u r a t i o n c a n be s i m p l y show n t o be n o n - z e r o b y a c l a s s i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n ( A l 8 2 ). The a d d i t i o n o f a n o c t u p o le co m p o n e n t t o th e n u c l e a r s h a p e a l s o r e s u l t s i n th e b r e a k i n g o f r e f l e c t i o n sy m m e try ( s e e f i g u r e 1. 4 ) a n d g i v e s r i s e t o s t r o n g e l e c t r i c o c t u p o le ( E 3 ) t r a n s i t i o n s i n a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d m a n n e r. B e c a u s e th e f i r s t o r d e r e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c t r a n s i t i o n o p e r a t o r s i m p l y c o n s i s t s o f th e c l a s s i c a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r th e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c m om ent, an e l e c t r i c o c t u p o le moment i s r e f l e c t e d i n th e o b s e r v a t i o n o f s t r o n g e l e c t r i c o c t u p o le t r a n s i t i o n s b e tw e e n q u a n tu m s t a t e s. I n th e l a t e 's, tw o s e p a r a t e t r e a t m e n t s o f th e o c t u p o l e s h a p e, one b y B o h r a n d M o t t e l s o n (B o 57, Bo 5 8 ), th e o t h e r b y S t r u t i n s k y ( S t 5 7 ), sh ow ed t h a t t h i s s h a p e co m p o n e n t w o u ld l e a d t o a l a r g e r d e n s i t y o f p r o t o n s r e l a t i v e t o n e u t r o n s i n one e n d o f th e n u c le u s t h a n i n th e o t h e r. C o n s e q u e n t ly, th e c e n t e r o f c h a r g e w o u ld be d i s p l a c e d fr o m th e c e n t e r o f m a ss a n d a n e l e c t r i c d i p o l e m om ent, a s w e l l a s s t r o n g E l t r a n s i t i o n s, w o u ld r e s u l t. T he c a l c u l a t i o n s o f r e f e r e n c e s (B o 5 7, Bo 5 8 ) a n d ( S t 5 7 ) a r e b a s e d, h o w e v e r, on d i f f e r e n t e l e c t r o s t a t i c e f f e c t s. I n th e

29 F i g u r e 1. 4 A lp h a c l u s t e r ( a ) a n d o c t u p o le d e fo r m e d ( b ) c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r 22 0 R a, d ra w n t o s c a l e. The o c t u p o l e d e fo r m e d sh a p e h a s th e d e f o r m a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s p2= a n d 33= p r e d i c t e d i n (N a 8 4 b ) f o r 222R a.

30

31 -13- B o h r a n d M o t t e l s o n t r e a t m e n t, i t i s a s su m e d t h a t a u n if o r m p r o t o n - n e u t r o n d i s t r i b u t i o n w o u ld e x i s t i n a s p h e r i c a l n u c l e u s, a n d th e p o l a r i z a t i o n a r i s e s e x c l u s i v e l y fro m th e r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e t r ic d e f o r m a t i o n. I n c o n t r a s t, S t r u t i n s k y t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t th e m o n o p o le e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d, w h ic h w o u ld f o r c e th e p r o t o n s t o w a r d th e s u r f a c e i n a s p h e r i c a l n u c l e u s. C o n s e q u e n t ly, th e two c a l c u l a t i o n s r e s u l t i n p r e d i c t i o n s o f th e e l e c t r i c d i p o l e moment w h ic h h a v e o p p o s i t e s ig n s, - th e c u r r e n t w e i g h t o f t h e o r e t i c a l e v id e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t th e S t r u t i n s k y r e s u l t i s th e c o r r e c t o n e. A v e r y r e c e n t c a l c u l a t i o n (D o 8 6 ) a d d s th e e f f e c t s o f a p o s t u l a t e d " n e u t r o n s k i n " on th e n u c l e u s. The r e l a t i v e im p o r t a n c e o f th e s e th r e e te rm s h a s n o t b e e n d e t e r m in e d, a n d p r e s e n t s a f o r m i d a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l o b s t a c l e. J u s t a s f o r sh a p e c o m p o n e n ts o f o t h e r m u l t i p o l a r i t i e s, th e o c t u p o le moment c a n be m a n i f e s t e d i n b o t h v i b r a t i o n a l a n d s t a t i c f o r m s. O c t u p o le v i b r a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d t h r o u g h o u t th e p e r i o d i c t a b l e, a n d i s a s s o c i a t e d w it h e n h a n c e d E l t r a n s i t i o n s i n th e r e g i o n n e a r Z = 6 4. T h e r e i s s t r o n g e v id e n c e ( s e e s e c t i o n 2. 2 ) t h a t th e a l t e r n a t i n g p a r i t y s t r u c t u r e i n th e n u c le u s 150G d ( f i g u r e 1. 5 ) r e s u l t s fr o m th e c o u p l i n g o f a n o c t u p o le p h o n o n c a r r y i n g s p i n - p a r i t y o f 3 t o th e p o s i t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s o f th e g r o u n d s t a t e b a n d o f t h i s q u a d r u p o le v i b r a t i o n a l n u c le u s (H a 7 7 ). I f a n o c t u p o le p h o n o n i s c o u p le d t o a q u a d r u p o le d e fo rm e d n u c l e u s, a n a d d i t i o n a l 1 s t a t e c o u l d be l o c a t e d b e lo w th e 3 s t a t e. G a m m a -ray b r a n c h i n g r a t i o s s u g g e s t t h a t E l t r a n s i t i o n s fr o m th e r e s u l t i n g n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y s t r o n g e r t h a n t h o s e a r i s i n g fr o m th e t r a n s i t i o n o f a s i n g l e p a r t i c l e fr o m one s h e l l m o d e l o r b i t a l t o a n o t h e r.

32 F i g u r e 1. 5 A p a r t i a l l e v e l s p e c tru m o f 15DG d (H a 7 7 ). The n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s show n h a v e b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d i n (H a 7 7 ) t o be th e r e s u l t o f th e c o u p l i n g o f an o c t u p o le p h o n o n h a v i n g J 1^ " t o th e q u a d r u p o le v i b r a t i o n a l c o r e.

33 -14-

34 -15- We w o u ld a l s o e x p e c t t o o b s e r v e l o w - l y i n g n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s a n d e n h a n c e d E l t r a n s i t i o n s i n a s t a t i c a l l y o c t u p o le d e fo r m e d n u c le u s. The n e g a t i v e p a r i t y b a n d w o u ld h a v e a 1 " s t a t e a s th e b a n d h e a d, a n d w o u ld fo rm an a l t e r n a t i n g p a r i t y s e q u e n c e a t h i g h e r s p i n s. No o b s e r v a t i o n s o f s t a t i c o c u t p o le d e f o r m a t i o n i n th e g r o u n d s t a t e o f a n u c le u s h a v e y e t b e e n c o n f ir m e d. T h e s t u d y o f r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e t r ic s h a p e s a l s o g i v e s u s th e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x a m in e o u r i d e a s c o n c e r n i n g s i n g l e p a r t i c l e m o t io n a n d c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v i o r i n s y s t e m s w i t h d i f f e r e n t s y m m e t r ie s fr o m t h o s e w it h w h ic h m o d e ls s u c h a s th e B o h r - M o t t e l s o n c o l l e c t i v e m o d e l, th e I n t e r a c t i n g B o s o n M o d e l, th e N i l s s o n d e fo r m e d s h e l l m o d e l a n d th e C r a n k e d S h e l l M o d e l w e re o r i g i n a l l y d e v e lo p e d. I n th e p a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s a c o n s i d e r a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l e f f o r t h a s b e e n m o u n te d i n o r d e r t o g e n e r a l i z e th e s e c o n c e p t s to th e c a s e i n w h ic h r e f l e c t i o n sy m m e try i s b r o k e n (N a 8 5, Ro 78, Ro 8 2 a, En 8 5, Da 8 3, l a 8 2 b ). T h e se e f f o r t s h a v e b e e n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y h a n d ic a p p e d b y th e l a c k o f th e l a r g e b o d y o f s y s t e m a t i c d a t a on r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e tr ic s y s t e m s n e e d e d t o r e f i n e t h e s e i d e a s i n t o r e l i a b l e m o d e l s. F o r o v e r t h i r t y y e a r s i t h a s b e e n known t h a t r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e tr ic s h a p e s m u st p l a y an im p o r t a n t r o l e a t v e r y lo w e x c i t a t i o n e n e r g i e s i n a num ber o f i s o t o p e s o f R a a n d T h. The f i r s t e v id e n c e t h a t t h i s m ig h t be th e c a s e w as fo u n d b y S t e p h e n s a n d c o l l a b o r a t o r s a t B e r k e l e y i n th e m i d 's ( S t 54, S t 55, S t 5 7 ). I n s p e c t r o s c o p i c s t u d i e s o f th e r a d i o a c t i v e d e c a y c h a i n s o f s e v e r a l U i s o t o p e s, i t w as d i s c o v e r e d t h a t th e a l p h a p a r t i c l e d e c a y s o f e v e n -m a s s U a n d Th i s o t o p e s p o p u l a t e d n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s o f v e r y lo w e n e r g i e s i n th e d a u g h t e r n u c l e i. T h e s e d e c a y

35 -16- s t u d i e s w ere e x p a n d e d a t B e r k e le y u n t i l th e e a r l y 's (R u 6 1 ), a n d f u r t h e r r e f i n e d i n th e s t u d i e s o f K u r c e w ic z (K u 7 6, Ku 77, Ku 7 8 ). F i g u r e 1.6 d i s p l a y s r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d b y K u r c e w ic z on th e d e c a y c h a i n o f U (K u 7 6 ). The l o w - l y i n g n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s a r e fo u n d i n b o t h 226Th a n d 22 2 R a a t r o u g h l y e q u a l e n e r g i e s. T e n t a t i v e a s s i g n m e n ts h a v e b e e n g i v e n t o t h r e e s t a t e s s t a t e s i n 21 8 Rn a t 653 k e V, 797 kev a n d 840 k e V ; t h e s e r e q u i r e some e x p l a n a t i o n. I n th e o r i g i n a l w o rk (K u 7 6 ), no s u c h a s s i g n m e n t s w ere r e p o r t e d. I t w as o b s e r v e d i n (P e 8 1 ), h o w e v e r, t h a t th e gamma r a y d e e x c i t a t i o n s o f t h e s e s t a t e s s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t e d th e a s s i g n m e n t s show n i n f i g u r e F u r t h e r, e l e c t r o n c o n v e r s i o n d a t a (L e 6 3 ) c o n f ir m s th e p a r i t y a s s i g n m e n t made f o r th e 797 kev l e v e l. I f t h e s e a s s i g n m e n t s a r e c o r r e c t, th e n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s i n 21 8 Rn a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r i n e n e r g y th a n t h o s e i n 222Ra a n d 226Th. A n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s e Rn s t a t e s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s them fro m c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t a t e s i n th e p a r e n t a n d g r a n d p a r e n t n u c l e i i s t h e i r o r d e r i n g. I n b o t h Ra a n d 226T h th e 1 " s t a t e i s l o c a t e d a b o u t 80 kev b e lo w th e 3 " s t a t e. H o w e v e r, th e 3 ' s t a t e f a l l s 43 kev b e lo w th e 1" s t a t e i n 218Rn. S u c h i n f o r m a t i o n may be h e l p f u l i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f d e t a i l s o f th e n u c l e a r s h a p e. R e c e n t l y, s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e s t u d i e d th e h i g h s p i n s t r u c t u r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e l o w - l y i n g n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s. An e x a m p le o f t h i s h i g h s p i n s t r u c t u r e i s t h a t o f 218Ra show n i n f i g u r e Two f e a t u r e s s t a n d o u t i n t h i s n u c le u s. The f i r s t i s th e a l t e r n a t i n g p a r i t y b a n d s t r u c t u r e a t s p i n s o f 4 R a n d a b o v e. The s e c o n d f e a t u r e, n o t show n i n th e f i g u r e, i s th e v e r y s t r o n g e n h a n c e m e n t o f th e E l t r a n s i t i o n s l i n k i n g th e o p p o s i t e p a r i t y m em bers o f th e g r o u n d s t a t e b a n d. I t h a s

36 F i g u r e 1.6 A lp h a p a r t i c l e d e c a y c h a i n o f 230U fr o m (K u 7 6 ). T e n t a t i v e s p i n a s s i g n m e n t s i n Rn a r e fr o m (P e 8 1 ).

37 230U D ECAY C H A IN o d 226Th *\ 30.9 m d a 38s 218 Dn a,036s 2l4Po /xs (2+)' (2+ )- (0+ ) -847 '805 (0+) 914 (n- (3 -) (4+) < 609 (5,6+) r Th " Ill o Ra ' Po Rn Pb 82* 128 I

38 F i g u r e 1.7 P a r t i a l l e v e l s p e c tr u m o f Ra c o m p i le d fr o m (G a 8 3 b, Go 8 5 ).

39 (21") (15) ^ T, JT i ». 15 i 2969 (14)] " 'it... 1 (13^) j (I") R a

40 -19- b e e n d e t e r m in e d t h a t th e r e d u c e d m a t r i x e le m e n t s o f t h e s e t r a n s i t i o n s a r e th e l a r g e s t ( a f t e r m a ss d e p e n d e n c e h a s b e e n re m o v e d ) fo u n d i n h e a v y e v e n -m a s s n u c l e i (G a 8 3 b ). The f i r s t o b j e c t i v e o f th e p r e s e n t w o rk i s a n e x a m in a t io n o f th e q u e s t i o n o f r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e try i n e v e n R n, Ra a n d Th n u c l e i t h r o u g h th e s t u d y o f th e s y s t e m a t i c b e h a v i o r o f t h e i r E l m a t r i x e le m e n t s a s w e l l a s t h e i r e x c i t a t i o n s p e c t r a a t b o t h lo w a n d h i g h s p i n s. The f i r s t w ay i n w h ic h we w i l l do t h i s i s v i a an e x p e r im e n t a l s t u d y o f th e gamma r a y s p e c t r a o f Rn a n d Ra p r o d u c e d i n th e 14C Pb f u s i o n - e v a p o r a t i o n r e a c t i o n a t beam e n e r g i e s o f MeV. E a c h o f t h e s e n u c l e i i s tw o n u c le o n s aw ay fro m 218R a, a n d i n f o r m a t i o n g a i n e d fr o m them w i l l c l a r i f y th e s y s t e m a t i c b e h a v i o r o f o b s e r v a b l e s i n th e m a ss r e g i o n v e r y c l o s e t o 21 8 R a. The s e c o n d s t u d y w i l l i n v o l v e th e t e s t i n g o f n u c l e a r c o l l e c t i v e m o d e ls c o n s t r u c t e d a r o u n d th e s h a p e s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e fro m d a t a a v a i l a b l e o n Ra a n d Th i s o t o p e s. T h i s w i l l i n c lu d e a d i s c u s s i o n o f p r e d i c t i o n s o f a N i l s s o n M o d e l a n d a C r a n k e d S h e l l M o d e l (N a 8 5 ), e a c h o f w h ic h i n c l u d e s an o c t u p o le d e g r e e o f fre e d o m (N a 8 5 ), a s w e l l a s e x a m in a t io n o f c a l c u l a t i o n s o f th e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y o f th e n u c l e a r g r o u n d s t a t e f o r a r a n g e o f s h a p e s (L e 8 2 a, N a 8 4 b ). We w i l l a l s o p r e s e n t th e r e s u l t s o f a c a l c u l a t i o n o f e n e r g y l e v e l s p e c t r a f o r f o u r Ra i s o t o p e s i n w h ic h th e V i b r o n f o r m a li s m (D a 8 3 ) i s a p p l i e d t o th e a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g p i c t u r e. I n a b r o a d e r w ay, we w i l l a l s o e x a m in e th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e t r ic b e h a v i o r i n R n, Ra a n d Th n u c l e i t o th e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d o c t u p o le v i b r a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r i n P b, P o, U a n d P u i s o t o p e s, a s

41 -20- w e l l a s i n a r a n g e o f e le m e n t s i n th e 5 6 < Z < 8 2, 82<N <126 r e g i o n. By c o m p a r in g th e s y s t e m a t i c b e h a v i o r o f e n e r g y e x c i t a t i o n s p e c t r a i n t h e s e r e g i o n s, we h o p e t o e v o lv e new i n s i g h t s i n t o th e n a t u r e o f th e r e f l e c t i o n a sy m m e try i n R n, Ra a n d Th. The s e c o n d o b j e c t i v e h e re i s t o s t u d y th e s t r e n g t h o f th e c o u p l i n g b e tw e e n an u n p a i r e d v a le n c e n u c le o n a n d th e e v e n -e v e n c o r e i n o d d - A n u c l e i o f t h i s r e g i o n. The p a r t i c l e - c o r e c o u p l i n g i s q u i t e d e p e n d e n t on th e d e g r e e o f d e f o r m a t i o n i n th e c o r e. I n th e c a s e o f an i d e a l s p h e r i c a l n u c l e u s, th e u n p a i r e d n u c le o n a n d th e c o r e i n t e r a c t i n s u c h a w ay t h a t th e s p e c t r u m o f th e o d d -A n u c le u s c o n s i s t s s i m p l y o f a s e q u e n c e o f d e g e n e r a t e m u l t i p l e t s, one m u l t i p l e t f o u n d a t th e e n e r g y o f e a c h s t a t e o f th e e v e n c o r e n u c l e u s. The s t a t e s o f e a c h m u l t i p l e t a r e g e n e r a t e d t h r o u g h th e a d d i t i o n o f th e a n g u l a r momentum o f th e u n p a i r e d n u c le o n, com m on ly d e n o t e d b y j, t o t h a t o f th e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o r e s t a t e : ii>(j, j, J ) J > x j > rv c o r e J c o r e J f o r J - j < J < J + j. c o r e c o r e T h i s s i t u a t i o n i s known a s th e w eak c o u p l i n g l i m i t. I f th e n u c l e u s h a s a s m a l l d e f o r m a t i o n, th e d e g e n e r a c y i s b r o k e n a n d th e s t a t e s a r e s p r e a d o v e r a s m a l l e n e r g y r a n g e, g e n e r a l l y a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f th e e n e r g y o f th e c o r e s t a t e. A s th e d e f o r m a t i o n b e c o m e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y l a r g e r, p r o fo u n d c h a n g e s o c c u r. S t a t e s fr o m d i f f e r e n t m u l t i p l e t s a r e m ix e d t o g e t h e r a n d th e w eak c o u p l i n g f o r m a l i s m b e co m e s i n a p p r o p r i a t e. F o r l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n s, th e s t r o n g c o u p l i n g a p p r o a c h u s e d i n th e N i l s s o n d e fo r m e d s h e l l m o d e l i s c o r r e c t. I n t h i s a p p r o a c h, d e fo rm e d c o r e s t a t e s a r e c o u p le d t o s i n g l e p a r t i c l e e i g e n s t a t e s o f a d e fo rm e d p o t e n t i a l a n d

42 -21- th e s i n g l e p a r t i c l e e n e r g y e i g e n v a l u e s d e p e n d d i r e c t l y on th e c o r e d e f o r m a t i o n. F u r t h e r, th e p a r t i c l e - c o r e i n t e r a c t i o n h a m i l t o n i a n h a s a l a r g e m a g n it u d e. I n th e p a r t i c l e - c o r e s e n s e, 21 9 Ra c a n be r e g a r d e d a s an u n p a i r e d n e u t r o n c o u p le d t o a 21 8 Ra c o r e. B e c a u s e 218Ra b e h a v e s a s a n e a r l y s p h e r i c a l n u c l e u s w i t h v i b r a t i o n a l e x c i t a t i o n m od es, we w o u ld e x p e c t fro m o u r k n o w le d g e o f v i b r a t i o n a l n u c l e i i n o t h e r r e g i o n s o f th e p e r i o d i c t a b l e t h a t Ra w o u ld d i s p l a y p r o p e r t i e s r a t h e r c l o s e t o t h o s e s e e n i n th e w eak c o u p l i n g l i m i t. We t e s t t h a t e x p e c t a t i o n b y e x a m in in g th e e n e r g y s p e c t r u m o f 21 8 Ra b y gamma r a y s p e c t r o s c o p y o f s t a t e s p o p u l a t e d i n f u s i o n - e v a p o r a t i o n r e a c t i o n s o f th e 14C Pb s y s t e m. We a l s o r e v ie w th e s y s t e m a t i c b e h a v i o r o f o d d -A n u c l e i i n th e im m e d ia te v i c i n i t y o f 219Ra i n o r d e r t o e x a m in e th e p a r t i c l e - c o r e c o u p l i n g s t r e n g t h i n n u c l e i o f t h i s r e g i o n. C h a p t e r tw o o f t h i s t h e s i s g i v e s a s c h e m a t ic o v e r v ie w o f t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t a k e n i n th e t r e a t m e n t o f n u c l e i o f th e R n - R a - T h r e g i o n. T e c h n iq u e s u s e d i n th e e x p e r im e n t a l s t u d i e s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s w o r k a r e d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r t h r e e, w h ic h i s f o l l o w e d i n c h a p t e r f o u r b y a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e e x p e r im e n t a l r e s u l t s. S t u d i e s o f s y s t e m a t i c b e h a v i o r a n d d i s c u s s i o n s o f o u r e x p e r im e n t a l r e s u l t s w i t h i n th e fr a m e w o r k s o f s e v e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l p i c t u r e s a r e t o be fo u n d i n c h a p t e r f i v e. O u r e x p e r im e n t a l f i n d i n g s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s a r e su m m a riz e d i n c h a p t e r s i x. B r i e f l y, t h r o u g h o u r s t u d i e s o f Rn a n d R a we h a v e f o u n d t h a t t r e n d s i n E l m a t r i x e le m e n t s a n d a lp h a p a r t i c l e d e c a y w id t h s a r e c o r r e l a t e d, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t th e e n h a n c e d E l t r a n s i t i o n s a n d l a r g e a l p h a p a r t i c l e d e c a y w id t h s o b s e r v e d i n t h i s r e g i o n r e s u l t fr o m a s i n g l e n u c l e a r

43 -22- ph e no m en on. F u r t h e r, 218R a i s th e l i g h t e s t member o f b o t h i s o t o p i c a n d i s o t o n i c c h a i n s w h ic h d i s p l a y s c o l l e c t i v e n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s a l o n g th e y r a s t l i n e. F i n a l l y, 219Ra a n d l i g h t e r o d d - A n e i g h b o r s c a n b e w e l l d e s c r i b e d w i t h i n a n a p p r o a c h b a s e d on w eak c o u p l i n g ; h o w e v e r, i t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h i s i s n o t th e c a s e f o r o d d - A n u c l e i o f m a ss g r e a t e r t h a n 219. We h a v e f o u n d c l e a r e v id e n c e f o r new r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e t r ic s h a p e s i n th e l i g h t a c t i n i d e s. The p r e s e n t b o d y o f s y s t e m a t i c d a t a o n t h i s m a ss r e g i o n i s u n a b l e, h o w e v e r, t o p e r m it d i s t i n g u i s h i n g am ong th e a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r, o c t u p o le v i b r a t i o n a n d s t a t i c o c t u p o le d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e ls b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s i m i l a r i t i e s. H o w e v e r, e n o u g h o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s now a v a i l a b l e t o s u g g e s t p o s s i b l e e x p e r im e n t a l a p p r o a c h e s t o th e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s p r o b le m. I n a d d i t i o n, o d d -A n u c l e i i n t h i s m a ss r e g i o n a p p e a r t o b e h a v e v e r y m uch l i k e n u c l e i o f s i m i l a r q u a d r u p o le d e f o r m a t i o n i n o t h e r r e g i o n s o f th e p e r i o d i c t a b l e.

44 2. OVERVIEW OF THEORY I n s e c t i o n s we d i s c u s s th e m o t i v a t i o n l e a d i n g t o a t t e m p t s t o u n d e r s t a n d th e o b s e r v a t i o n s on th e R a a n d T h i s o t o p e s w i t h i n th e fr a m e w o r k o f a l p h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g, o c t u p o le v i b r a t i o n a n d s t a t i c o c t u p o l e d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e ls. H e re we p r e s e n t a few o f t h e i r m ore im p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r e v e n - e v e n n u c l e i. E a c h o f t h e s e m o d e ls a r i s e s i n a n a t u r a l w ay fr o m b e h a v i o r o b s e r v e d n o t o n l y i n th e a c t i n i d e r e g i o n b u t a l s o t h r o u g h o u t th e p e r i o d i c t a b l e. The e f f e c t s o f r e f l e c t i o n a sy m m e try i n o d d - A n u c l e i a r e d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n s A L P H A P A R T I C L E C L U S T E R I N G I N H E A V Y N U C L E I A N D T H E H Y B R I D M O D E L The c o n c e p t o f a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g i n th e l i g h t a c t i n i d e s i s s u g g e s t e d b y tw o g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s. F i r s t, r e d u c e d w id t h s f o r th e a l p h a p a r t i c l e d e c a y o f g r o u n d s t a t e s o f Ra a n d Th i n th e 218<A <230 i n t e r v a l a r e l a r g e. I n 218R a, th e g r o u n d s t a t e r e d u c e d a lp h a p a r t i c l e w i d t h i s 20% o f th e W ig n e r L i m i t (Te 5 2 ), a c o n v e n ie n t m e a su re o f m o le c u l a r c h a r a c t e r m o s t o f t e n u s e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w it h h e a v y i o n s c a t t e r i n g. I t i s g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d t h a t a s t a t e h a v i n g a r e d u c e d w id t h f o r a p a r t i c u l a r n u c l e a r f r a g m e n t o f 100% o f th e W ig n e r L i m i t i s a p u r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n w h ic h th e s a i d fr a g m e n t a n d th e r e m a in d e r o f th e n u c le u s a r e th e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f a p u r e m o le c u la r c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n w h ic h th e c o n s t i t u e n t s h a v e t a n g e n t s u r f a c e s. M o r e o v e r, a r e d u c e d w id t h o f e v e n 2%

45 -24- o f th e W ig n e r L i m i t i s s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d t o be " m o l e c u l a r " i n c o l l i s i o n s o f h e a v y i o n s (E b 8 1 ). The s e c o n d m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h i s m o d e l i s th e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d im p o r t a n c e o f a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g f o r l i g h t n u c l e i. We h a v e a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d 180 a s one e x a m p le o f a n u c le u s i n w h ic h a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g a p p e a r s t o p l a y a r o l e. I n f i g u r e 2. 1, we d i s p l a y a m uch s t u d i e d e x a m p le, 20N e. R e d u c e d a lp h a p a r t i c l e w id t h s o f 20% a n d 50% o f th e W ig n e r L i m i t f l a g t h o s e s t a t e s i n w h ic h th e e f f e c t o f a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g i s m o st p r o n o u n c e d. A lt h o u g h th e a r r a n g e m e n t o f s t a t e s i s n o t a s s im p le a s t h a t o f th e p r o p o s e d a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r b a n d i n 180, th e b a n d o f n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s a s s o c i a t e d w it h th e r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e t r ic n a t u r e o f a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g ( J ^ l ", 3, 5 ", 7 " w it h <0 2> = 5 0 % ) ct c a n be e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d. In d e e d, e v e n th e g r o u n d s t a t e o f 20Ne, w it h a r e d u c e d w id t h o f o n l y 5% o f th e W ig n e r L i m i t, i s c o n s i d e r e d m o le c u la r i n th e s e n s e t h a t i t s w a v e f u n c t io n c a n be w r i t t e n a s Y = *0*i6oXa_i60(ra_i60)' w he re a n d $ 16q r e p r e s e n t th e i n t r i n s i c s t a t e s o f th e a lp h a p a r t i c l e a n d 160 c o r e, r e s p e c t i v e l y, a n d x _ i 6q c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e i r r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n. The d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h o s e b a n d s w it h r e d u c e d w id t h s o f 40% a n d 50% o f th e W ig n e r L i m i t h a v e r e l a t i v e l y w e l l s e p a r a t e d c l u s t e r s, w h e r e a s i n th e g r o u n d s t a t e th e y a c t u a l l y i n t e r p e n e t r a t e to some d e g r e e. One e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n 180 a n d 20Ne m u st be m e n tio n e d, h o w e v e r. I n 180, th e a l p h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n g i v e s r i s e t o a n e l e c t r i c d i p o l e m om ent. T h i s i s n o t th e c a s e i n 20N e, s i n c e a i s

46 F i g u r e 2.1 P a r t i a l l e v e l s p e c tr u m o f 20Ne (A j 8 3 ).

47 CO CO + V + CO + V I in OJ O o' O J + fo H O A h" wo * ^ + + oj o = o + ^ m ii A *= oj a 05 = V + + z o' + 0 J o O O J ii ii f= A o j a 05 V o co + a = v i o o in II M k A cma z 05 V -25- <02>=5% 20 N e

48 -26- a s e l f - c o n j u g a t e s y s t e m s o t h a t E l t r a n s i t i o n s v a n i s h i n l e a d i n g o r d e r. We s h o u ld e m p h a s iz e t h a t w h i le 4H e + 14C s t a t e s p l a y an e s s e n t i a l r o l e i n 180 th e y a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s h e a v i l y m ix e d w it h n a n d 20N e + 2 ( p r o t o n h o l e ) c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a s w e l l a s th e q u a d r u p o le d e fo r m e d s t a t e s o f 180. C o n s e q u e n t ly, t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n m i x i n g m u st be ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t when i n t e r p r e t i n g th e s p e c t r o s c o p i c i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h i s n u c le u s. A s show n i n f i g u r e 1.4, th e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t l a r g e r e d u c e d a lp h a p a r t i c l e w id t h s a r e s i g n a t u r e s f o r a lp h a c l u s t e r i n g i n Ra a n d Th a p p l i e s t o c e r t a i n n u c l e i i n th e A =50 a n d 150 r e g i o n s a s w e l l. A s m e n tio n e d i n th e i n t r o d u c t i o n, th e SGA a p p r o a c h p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l fr a m e w o rk f o r th e a n a l y s i s o f d a t a on q u a d r u p o le c o l l e c t i v i t y a n d m o le c u la r b e h a v i o r. I n th e I n t e r a c t i n g B o s o n A p p r o x i m a t io n ( I B A ), th e SGA m o d e l f o r q u a d r u p o le c o l l e c t i v i t y i n e v e n -e v e n h e a v y n u c l e i, th e n u c le o n s o u t s i d e o f c l o s e d s h e l l s a r e p a i r e d, th e p a i r s b e i n g t r e a t e d a s b o s o n s. E a c h b o s o n c a n o c c u p y two q uan tu m s t a t e s : th e g r o u n d, o r s - b o s o n, s t a t e w it h a n g u l a r momentum z e r o ; a n d th e e x c i t e d, o r d - b o s o n, s t a t e w it h a n g u l a r momentum o f 2FT a n d e x c i t a t i o n e n e r g y e ^. I n a d d i t i o n, th e d - b o s o n c a n o c c u p y a n y o f th e f i v e m a g n e t ic s u b s t a t e s o f a s p i n 2 p a r t i c l e. C o n s e q u e n t ly, t h e r e a r e s i x t y p e s o f b o s o n s p r e s e n t i n t h i s m o d e l. The t o t a l b o s o n num ber, N = n + n,, s d (w h ere n a n d n, a r e th e n u m b e rs o f s - a n d d - b o s o n s, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) i s s d h e l d c o n s t a n t a t a v a l u e e q u a l t o h a l f th e num ber o f v a le n c e n u c le o n s (the total of valence protons and neutrons). For example, 220Ra has 6

49 F i g u r e 2. 2 C l a s s i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f q u a d r u p o le a n d d i n u c l e a r m o l e c u l a r d e g r e e s o f fr e e d o m a n d th e c o r r e s p o n d i n g sym m e try g r o u p s U ( n ) (E n 8 4 ).

50 (a) z ii (b) Z i YNT 70 A 1 / / / ] // M / I 'a/ * / / x y ~ ^y 0, y, d\, 8 Z, 6 Z r,0,< U(6) U(4)

51 -28- v a le n c e p r o t o n s o v e r th e s h e l l c l o s u r e Z = 8 2, a n d 6 v a le n c e n e u t r o n s o v e r th e m a g ic num ber 12 6, y i e l d i n g N =6. When th e c r e a t i o n a n d a n n i h i l a t i o n o p e r a t o r s f o r t h e s e b o s o n s a r e u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t a b o s o n n u m b e r - c o n s e r v i n g h a m i l t o n i a n, th e y a c t a s g e n e r a t o r s f o r th e sy m m e try g r o u p o f th e q u a d r u p o le c o l l e c t i v e s y ste m, U ( 6 ). A s i m p l y s t a t e d r u l e r e l a t i n g th e p o s s i b l e b o s o n s t a t e s ( i n c l u d i n g m a g n e t ic s u b s t a t e s ) t o th e sy m m e try g r o u p f o r th e s y s t e m i s t h a t i f t h e r e a r e n b o s o n s t a t e s p r e s e n t, th e n th e sy m m e try g r o u p i s U ( n ). The e i g e n s t a t e s o f a S p e c tr u m G e n e r a t i n g A l g e b r a c a n be d e s c r i b e d i n te rm s o f a s e t o f p h y s i c a l b e n c h m a r k s c a l l e d d y n a m ic a l l i m i t s. I n th e s t u d y o f n u c l e a r c o l l e c t i v e ph e nom en a, a s u b g r o u p A o f th e SGA sym m e t r y g r o u p i s a p h y s i c a l l y m e a n in g f u l d y n a m ic a l l i m i t o f th e SGA i f a n d o n l y i f th e sy m m e try g r o u p f o r a n g u l a r momentum, 0 ( 3 ), i s a s u b g r o u p o f A ( l a 8 0 ). O n ly th e n do th e m o d e l s t a t e s h a v e a n g u l a r momentum a s a g o o d q u a n tu m n um be r. P h y s i c a l l y, a d y n a m ic a l l i m i t i s a l i m i t i n g c a s e o f th e p h y s i c a l m o t io n d e s c r ib e d. F o r i n s t a n c e, th e IB A h a s th r e e d y n a m ic a l l i m i t s : S U ( 3 ), th e d e fo rm e d s y m m e tr ic r o t o r ; U ( 5 ), th e a n h a r - m o n ic v i b r a t o r ; a n d 0 ( 6 ), th e a x i a l l y a s y m m e t r ic, g a m m a - u n s t a b le r o t o r. A s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n o f th e IB A h a m i l t o n i a n c a n i l l u s t r a t e how t h i s m o d e l t r e a t s th e q u a d r u p o le v i b r a t i o n a l t o d e fo r m e d ( S U ( 5 ) t o S U ( 3 ), i n th e la n g u a g e o f th e IB A ) t r a n s i t i o n. T h i s h a m i l t o n i a n i s H = Ednd - KdQd'Qd. (2.2.1) w here n ^ a n d a r e d e f i n e d a s a b o v e, r e p r e s e n t s th e q u a d r u p o le - q u a d r u p o le i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n b o s o n s, a n d i s a p a r a m e t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g th e s t r e n g t h o f t h i s te rm. I n a d d i t i o n, i s t r e a t e d a s a p a ra m e - S

52 -29- t e r. When cj> >K d ' t5 e e x c i t a t 4 o n s p e c tr u m c o n s i s t s o f d e g e n e r a t e m u l t i p l e t s o f s t a t e s (e a c h m u l t i p l e t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a g i v e n v a l u e o f n ^ ) w h ic h a r e s p a c e d a p a r t. T h i s i s th e b e h a v i o r we e x p e c t i n v i b r a t i o n a l n u c l e i, a n d c o r r e s p o n d s t o th e U ( 5 ) d y n a m ic a l l i m i t. We c a n b r e a k th e d e g e n e r a c i e s o f th e m u l t i p l e t s b y i n c l u d i n g a term [k' + (3/8)Kd]Ld-L^ {2 2 2) w he re L d g i v e s th e a n g u l a r momentum o f a b o s o n, i n th e h a m i l t o n i a n. The o p e r a t o r Qd c a n be w r i t t e n i n te rm s o f b o s o n c r e a t i o n ( s + a n d d+ ) a n d a n n i h i l a t i o n ( s a n d d ) o p e r a t o r s a s Qd = ( s + d + d+ s ) + ( l / 5 ) 1 / 2 x ( d + d ) ( 2 ), w here th e s u p e r s c r i p t (2 ) d e n o t e s a c o u p l i n g to two u n i t s o f a n g u l a r momentum, a n d x i s a p a r a m e t e r. I f <cj> > d an<4 X= 0, th e n th e h a m i l t o n i a n c o r r e s p o n d s to th e 0 ( 6 ) g a m m a -u n s ta b le l i m i t ; a v a l u e x = ~ y i e l d s th e S U ( 3 ) d e fo r m e d r o t o r l i m i t. The v i b r a t i o n a l t o d e fo r m e d t r a n s i t i o n i s r e p r o d u c e d b y i n c r e a s i n g th e im p o r t a n c e o f th e te rm r e l a t i v e t o th e d n d te rm ( i. e. b y i n c r e a s i n g T h i s a l g e b r a i c p r e s c r i p t i o n c a n a l s o be a p p l i e d t o s im p le m o le c u la r b e h a v i o r. The r e s u l t, c a l l e d th e v i b r o n m o d e l, u s e s s - b o s o n s (1 = 0 ) a n d p - b o s o n s ( 1 = 1 ), a n d h a s th e sy m m e try g r o u p U ( 4 ). No b o s o n c o u n t i n g r u l e s, s u c h a s t h o s e u s e d f o r th e IB A, h a ve b e e n d e d u c e d f o r th e v i b r o n m o d e l. T h i s m o d e l h a s two d y n a m ic a l l i m i t s : 0 ( 4 ), th e r i g i d r o t a t i n g m o le c u le w it h s t i f f p a r t i c i p a n t n u c l e i ; a n d U ( 3 ), a m ore c o m p le x mode w h ic h i s p r i m a r i l y o f o s c i l l a t o r y c h a r a c t e r ( l a 8 2 a ). T h e se two l i m i t s r e s u l t i n e n e r g y l e v e l s p e c t r a a n d s e l e c t i o n r u l e s f o r ga m m a -ra y t r a n

53 s i t i o n s t h a t a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e The s im p le v i b r o n m o d e l h a s b e e n a p p l i e d t o a v a r i e t y o f n u c l e a r s y s t e m s, i n c l u d i n g 12C + 12C ( E r 81, C s 8 5 ) a n d i 2C (R u 8 4 ). I n th e p r e s e n t s t u d y, we w i l l be i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n th e U ( 3 ) l i m i t o f th e U ( 4 ) sy m m e try g r o u p ; th e h a m i l t o n i a n f o r t h i s l i m i t i s H = s n + a n (n - 1 ) + k 'L *L, ( ) P P P P P P P P w he re i s a p a r a m e t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g th e e n e r g y r e q u i r e d t o p ro m o te a b o s o n fro m an s s t a t e t o a p s t a t e, a n d k 1 a n d a a r e th e s t r e n g t h P p a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e te r m s. The p h e n o m e n o lo g y o f t h i s m o d e l i s n o t a s w e l l u n d e r s t o o d a s t h a t o f th e IB A ; h o w e v e r, we w o u ld e x p e c t t h a t e w o u ld c o n t r o l th e e x c i t a t i o n e n e r q y o f th e b a n d h e a d o f th e P " d i p o l e v i b r a t i o n " b a n d, th e b a n d o f s t a t e s h a v i n g n = 1. F u r t h e r, th e P L L term c l e a r l y a c t s t o b r e a k v i b r a t i o n a l m u l t i p l e t s. P P When th e i n t r i n s i c b e h a v i o r o f one o r b o t h o f th e m o l e c u l a r c o n s t i t u e n t s i s i m p o r t a n t, th e s i t u a t i o n b e co m e s m ore c o m p le x. F o r th e c a s e o f a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g i n h e a v y n u c l e i, th e q u a d r u p o le c o l l e c t i v e e x c i t a t i o n s p e c tr u m o f th e c o r e m u st be ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t. T h i s i s done i n th e H y b r i d M o d e l, a m a r r i a g e b e tw e e n th e IB A a n d th e V i b r o n M o d e l (D a 8 3 ). Two s e t s o f b o s o n s a r e u s e d, th e t o t a l b o s o n numb e r i n e a c h s e t b e i n g c o n s e r v e d. The f i r s t s e t c o n s i s t s o f th e s a n d d b o s o n s u s e d t o a c c o u n t f o r th e q u a d r u p o le m o t io n o f th e c o r e ; th e m o le c u l a r a s p e c t s o f th e c o r e - c l u s t e r s t r u c t u r e a r e d e s c r i b e d b y th e s a n d p b o s o n s o f th e U ( 4 ) SGA. F o r c l a r i t y, we d e n o te th e b o s o n s o f th e l a t t e r s e t b y s * a n d p *. We a l s o u se th e n o t a t i o n

54 F i g u r e 2. 3 A s c h e m a t ic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e e n e r g y s p e c t r a f o r th e tw o d y n a m ic a l l i m i t s o f th e V i b r o n M o d e l. The a r r o w s r e p r e s e n t f i r s t o r d e r a llo w e d E l t r a n s i t i o n s (E n 8 4 ).

55 E (MeV) _ YNT 75 _ YNT 77 -JC 0+ 0 _ > 3 " ; 2+ r ^ o + i i ( 4 )

56 -32- N = n. + n. p s * p * f o r th e c o n s e r v e d b o s o n n u m b e rs f o r e a c h s e t. The sy m m e try g r o u p f o r t h i s m o d e l i s s i m p l y U ( 6 ) $ U ( 4 ). B o s o n s fro m th e two s e t s i n t e r a c t v i a th e h a m i l t o n i a n % - >=«d'8p + 2* v y <2-2-4) I t h a s b e e n fo u n d i n p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s u s i n g t h i s m o d e l t h a t th e U ( 3 ) v i b r o n h a m i l t o n i a n i s m o st a p p r o p r i a t e f o r th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f Ra a n d Th i s o t o p e s. C o n s e q u e n t ly, th e h a m i l t o n i a n t h a t we u se i n o u r s t u d y i s th e sum o f t h o s e fo u n d i n ( ), ( ), ( ) a n d ( ). The H y b r i d M o d e l c a l c u l a t i o n i t s e l f a s su m e s th e p r e s e n c e o f two c o n f i g u r a t i o n s, one w it h o u t a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g ( t h e z e r o a lp h a c o n f i g u r a t i o n ), f o r w h ic h N =0 a n d N, i s d e t e r m in e d b y th e u s u a l IB A P Q c o u n t i n g r u l e ; a n d a n o t h e r w it h a s i n g l e v a le n c e a lp h a p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r ( t h e one a lp h a c o n f i g u r a t i o n ), i n w h ic h N^=2 a n d i s two l e s s t h a n i n th e z e r o a lp h a c o n f i g u r a t i o n. The z e r o a lp h a c o n f i g u r a t i o n h a s o n l y th e q u a d r u p o le d e g r e e o f fr e e d o m ; c o n s e q u e n t ly, o n l y p o s i t i v e p a r i t y e v e n s p i n s t a t e s a r e p r e s e n t i n t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n. B o t h p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s a r i s e fro m th e r e f l e c t i o n a s y m m e t r ic one a lp h a c o n f i g u r a t i o n. S t a t e s fr o m b o t h c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e p u t i n t o a s i n g l e s p a c e, i n w h ic h th e y a r e m ix e d t h r o u g h th e u s e o f a m i x i n g h a m i l t o n i a n a n d f i r s t o r d e r p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y. V. = y ( s + 2 s * 2 + s * + 2 s 2 ), m ix (w h e re y i s a p a r a m e t e r ) a n d f i r s t o r d e r p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y. The e n e r g y d e n o m in a t o r u s e d i n th e e x p r e s s i o n f o r th e p e r t u r b e d w a v e f u n c t io n

57 -33- i s a l s o a p a r a m e t e r, <f>. C o n f i g u r a t i o n m i x i n g t a k e s p l a c e am ong th e a p o s i t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s, b u t th e one a lp h a n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s h a v e no z e r o a lp h a s t a t e s w i t h w h ic h t o i n t e r a c t a n d, t h u s, re m a in p u r e. An e x a m p le i s s k e t c h e d i n f i g u r e The H y b r i d M o d e l h a s b e e n a p p l i e d to n u c l e i i n th e r a r e e a r t h, l i g h t a c t i n i d e a n d h e a v y a c t i n i d e r e g i o n s (D a 8 3, Da 8 4, Da 8 6 a, Da 8 6 b ). I n p a r t i c u l a r, tw o s e p a r a t e s e t s o f p a r a m e t e r s h a v e b e e n u s e d to d e s c r i b e Ra a n d Th i s o t o p e s (D a 83, Da 8 4 ) O C T U P O L E V I B R A T I O N A L B E H A V I O R I N E V E N - E V E N N U C L E I I n th e i n t r o d u c t i o n - we b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d how th e c o u p l i n g o f an o c t u p o le p h o n o n t o th e g r o u n d s t a t e q u a d r u p o le c o l l e c t i v e b a n d c a n a c c o u n t f o r th e p r e s e n c e o f l o w - l y i n g n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s. I t a p p e a r s t h a t s u c h a c o u p l i n g p r o d u c e s an a l t e r n a t i n g p a r i t y b a n d a t s p i n s o f 3H a n d a b o v e i n th e s p h e r i c a l n u c le u s 150G d. F u r t h e r, i n th e d e fo rm e d r a r e e a r t h n u c l e i th e lo w e s t o c t u p o le v i b r a t i o n a l s t a t e o f t e n a r i s e s fro m th e c o u p l i n g o f an o c t u p o le p h o n o n w hose a n g u l a r momentum v e c t o r l i e s, i n th e i n t r i n s i c fra m e, n o r m a l t o th e sy m m e try a x i s o f th e n u c le u s. The a n g u l a r momentum p r o j e c t i o n on th e sy m m e try a x i s i s a g o o d q uantum num ber w h ic h i s d e n o te d b y K. C o n s e q u e n t ly, th e o c t u p o le p h o n o n we h a v e j u s t d e s c r i b e d h a s K ^ O ". T h i s a l i g n e d o c t u p o l e p h o n o n c a n g i v e th e s p i n - p a r i t y s e q u e n c e 1 ", 3 ", 5 ", e t c., s u c h a s t h a t i n 162E r ( f i g u r e 2. 5 ). The octupole vibrational interpretation of low-lying negative-par-

58 F ig u r e 2. 4 A s c h e m a t ic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e H y b r i d M o d e l f o r 218Ra - th e m i x i n g o f th e c o n f i g u r a t i o n w it h no a lp h a p a r t i c l e s w it h t h a t h a v i n g one a lp h a p a r t i c l e (E n 8 4 ).

59 THE LOW LYING QUANTUM LEVELS OF RADIUM-218 SHOWING BOTH QUADRUPOLE AND DIPOLE COLLECTIVITY AND THEIR INTERACTION EXCITATION ENERGY IN M e V \ \ \ \ \.6-7 " ' ' \._ ^ \ \ \ \ \ \. \ - 7 ' ' ' 2' r O 0 P U R E QUADRUPOLE ACTUAL N U C L E A R L E V E L DIAGRAM FOR RADIUM 218 PURE DIPOLE A. W. W R I G H T N U C L E A R S T R U C T U R E L A B O R A T O R Y - Y A L E

60 F i g u r e 2. 5 A p a r t i a l l e v e l s p e c trum o f 162E r (He 8 5 ). The n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s show n h a v e b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d i n (He 8 5 ) t o be th e r e s u l t o f th e c o u p l i n g o f an o c t u p o le p h o n o n h a v i n g K ^ O " t o th e q u a d r u p o le d e fo r m e d c o r e.

61 I l62er 68 94

62 -36- i t y s t a t e s i n th e t r a n s i t i o n a l r a r e - e a r t h n u c l e i i s s u p p o r t e d i n s e v e r a l w a y s. F i r s t, s t r o n g E3 t r a n s i t i o n s d e e x c i t e th e lo w e s t 3 ' s t a t e s i n t h e s e n u c l e i (B e 7 1 ). N e x t, two o c t u p o le p h o n o n s t a t e s h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d i n 147Gd a n d 148Gd (K 1 82, Lu 8 4 ) ; t h e s e s t a t e s w ere r e c o g n i z e d p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e o f t h e i r d e e x c i t a t i o n b y a c a s c a d e o f two E3 t r a n s i t i o n s. An i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e c o r r e s p o n d i n g n e g a t i v e p a r i t y b a n d s o f t h e s e n u c l e i i n te rm s o f th e c o u p l i n g o f an o c t u p o le ph o n o n t o s u c c e s s i v e g r o u n d s t a t e b a n d m em bers i s s u g g e s t e d b y th e s i m i l a r i t y o f th e s t r u c t u r e s o f th e g r o u n d s t a t e a n d n e g a t i v e p a r i t y b a n d s a s w e l l a s th e e n h a n c e d E l t r a n s i t i o n s c o n n e c t i n g th e two b a n d s. F u r t h e r, a num ber o f m o d e ls i n c o r p o r a t i n g o c t u p o le p h o n o n s h a v e s u c c e s s f u l l y r e p r o d u c e d o b s e r v e d e x c i t a t i o n s p e c t r a ( s e e, f o r i n s t a n c e, Ha 77 a n d Su 7 7 ). We s h o u l d a l s o n o t e th e r e s u l t s o f (V o 7 6 ), w h ic h s u g g e s t t h a t th e c h a r a c t e r o f n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s i n d e fo r m e d r a r e e a r t h n u c l e i c h a n g e s fro m o c t u p o le v i b r a t i o n a l to two q u a s i p a r t i c l e a s th e s p i n i n c r e a s e s fr o m 9R t o 15fi. S e v e r a l a u t h o r s (H a 7 7, Ha 79, Su 7 7 ) h a ve n o t e d t h a t t h i s s u g g e s t i o n may a p p ly t o t r a n s i t i o n a l la n t h a n id e n u c l e i a s w e l l. F u r t h e r, i t i s a l s o p r e d i c t e d i n (V o 7 6 ) t h a t an e q u i v a l e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o c c u r s i n th e h e a v y a c t i n i d e s ( f o r e x a m p le, 238U ) a t s p i n s n e a r 25R. An o c t u p o le v i b r a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r c a n p r o d u c e E l t r a n s i t i o n s c o n s i d e r a b l y s t r o n g e r th a n t h o s e a r i s i n g fro m s i n g l e p a r t i c l e t r a n s i t i o n s. By s i m p l y c o n s i d e r i n g th e e x p r e s s i o n f o r th e d i p o l e moment r e s u l t i n g fro m an o c t u p o le s h a p e, an e x p r e s s i o n w h ic h i s common t o b o t h th e S t r u t i n s k i ( S t 5 7 ) a n d B o h r - M o t t e l s o n (B o 5 7 ) t r e a t m e n t s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r, n a m e ly :

63 -37- D = cazep p (2.2.1) a n d th e e x p r e s s i o n f o r th e f i r s t o r d e r r e d u c e d E l m a t r i x e le m e n t i n a q u a d r u p o le d e fo r m e d n u c le u s, n a m e ly : B ( E l : I. - > I tf) = ( 3 / 4 -it) < D 2>< I I. 1 I. 0> ( ) i f l i f we se e t h a t B ( E 1 : I. + I f ) cc 02 2 < 8 3 2> ( ) T h u s, an o c t u p o l e p h o n o n i s s u f f i c i e n t t o g i v e a s t r o n g E l t r a n s i t i o n when e v e n a s m a l l q u a d r u p o le d e f o r m a t io n e x i s t s. I t b e a r s e m p h a s is, h o w e v e r, t h a t w h i le r e d u c e d m a t r i x e le m e n t s o f E l t r a n s i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w it h o c t u p o le v i b r a t i o n s i n th e l a n t h a n i d e r e g i o n a r e e n h a n c e d r e l a t i v e to s i n g l e p a r t i c l e E l d e e x c i t a t i o n s i n h e a v y n u c l e i, th e y a r e s t i l l a f a c t o r o f te n lo w e r th a n t h o s e m e a s u r e d i n 218Ra (G a 8 6 ). One a p p a r e n t s h o r t c o m in g i n t h e s e m o d e ls, h o w e v e r, c o n c e r n s th e p r e d i c t e d d e p e n d e n c e o f th e s t r e n g t h o f th e E l t r a n s i t i o n on th e p a r i t y o f th e i n i t i a l s t a t e. S e v e r a l c a l c u l a t i o n s, i n c l u d i n g t h o s e i n (S u 7 7 ) a n d (H a 7 7 ), p r e d i c t t h a t th e E l t r a n s i t i o n s o r i g i n a t i n g fro m p o s i t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s s h o u l d be s i g n i f i c a n t l y lo w e r th a n t h o s e o r i g i n a t i n g fr o m n e g a t i v e p a r i t y s t a t e s i n s p h e r i c a l a n d t r a n s i t i o n a l n u c l e i. A d i f f e r en ce o f a f a c t o r o f t h r e e i s p r e d i c t e d i n (H a 7 9 ) f o r 148Sm; a c a l c u l a t i o n i n (H a 7 7 ) f o r 150Gd u s i n g a d i f f e r e n t t e c h n iq u e p r e d i c t s a f a c t o r o f H o w e v e r, m o st n u c l e i i n t h i s n e ig h b o r h o o d show no e v id e n c e f o r s u c h a d i f f e r e n c e ( s e e f i g u r e 2. 6 ). The c a l c u l a t i o n i n ( S u 7 7 ) o v e r com es t h i s d i f f i c u l t y b y i n c l u d i n g an a d d i t i o n a l tw o -b o d y te rm i n th e

64 F i g u r e 2.6 The r a t i o o f the r e d u c e d m a t r i x e le m e n t s o f th e E l and E2 d e e x c i t a t i o n s, d e n o te d b y B ( E 1 : J -» J - 1 ) / B ( E 2 : J-+ J-2 ), betw e en s t a t e s b e l o n g i n g to th e g r o u n d s t a t e a n d o c t u p o le b a n d s i n 150Gd, 148Sm a n d 150Sm. No o d d - e v e n p a r i t y s t a g g e r i n g o f l a r g e m a g n it u d e i s e v id e n t. D a t a a r e ta k e n fr o m r e f e r e n c e s (S u 77, Ha 77, Pe 8 4 b ).

65 B(El: J J -D /B (E 2 : J -J -2 ) (W.u.) -38-

66 -39- quantum operator for the El transition. The p r i m a r y o b j e c t i o n t o th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Ra a n d Th b e h a v i o r i n te rm s o f o c t u p o l e v i b r a t i o n s h a s b e e n t h a t two o c t u p o le p h o n o n s t a t e s o f s p i n - p a r i t y 0+ (w h ic h i n th e c a s e o f h a r m o n ic o s c i l l a t i o n w o u ld be fo u n d a t t w ic e th e e x c i t a t i o n e n e r g y o f th e n e g a t i v e p a r i t y b a n d h e a d ) h a v e n o t b e e n o b s e r v e d i n e v e n - e v e n Ra a n d Th i s o t o p e s n e a r m a ss 22 5, w here e x t e n s i v e s t u d i e s o f s t a t e s o f lo w s p i n a n d e x c i t a t i o n e n e r g y h a v e b e e n p e r f o r m e d t h r o u g h e x a m in a t io n o f a l p h a - a n d b e t a - p a r t i c l e d e c a y. T h i s a r g u m e n t c a n be a n s w e r e d i n two w a y s. F i r s t, P i e p e n b r i n g ( P i 8 2 ) h a s p e r fo r m e d c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t show t h a t a n h a r m o n i c i t i e s i n th e v i b r a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r o f Ra a n d Th c a n d r i v e th e tw o - ph o n o n s t a t e s t o much h i g h e r e n e r g i e s, p o s s i b l y a s h i g h a s f i v e t im e s th e o n e -p h o n o n e n e r g y. S e c o n d, i t i s c l e a r t h a t a n y s t a t i c o c t u p o le d e fo rm e d b e h a v i o r m u st be th e end r e s u l t o f, i n a n a l o g y t o th e q u a d r u p o le c a s e, a sm o o th t r a n s i t i o n fr o m o c t u p o l e v i b r a t i o n t o o c t u p o le d e f o r m a t io n t a k i n g p l a c e o v e r a s e r i e s o f n u c l e i. T h i s c o u l d m ean, f o r i n s t a n c e, t h a t 22 4 Ra h a s a s t a t i c o c t u p o l e d e f o r m a t i o n, w h i le R a s i m p l y e x h i b i t s an o c t u p o le v i b r a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r (C h 7 9 ) S T A T I C O C T U P O L E D E F O R M A T I O N S I N E V E N - E V E N N U C L E I J u s t a s s t a t i c a l l y d e fo rm e d q u a d r u p o le s h a p e s e x i s t i n n u c l e i, we m ig h t e x p e c t t h a t s t a t i c o c t u p o le s h a p e s c a n be fo u n d a s w e l l. U n l i k e v i b r a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r, a s t a t i c s h a p e c o m p o n e n t p r e s e n t i n th e g r o u n d s t a t e a f f e c t s g r o u n d s t a t e p r o p e r t i e s, s u c h a s th e n u c l e a r m a s s. I n

67 , M t f lle r a n d N i x p u b l i s h e d a c a l c u l a t i o n o f n u c l e a r m a s s e s t a k i n g b o t h q u a d r u p o le a n d h e x a d e c a p o le d e f o r m a t i o n s i n t o a c c o u n t (Mo 8 1 b ). T h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n i s q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l o v e r th e e n t i r e r a n g e o f h e a v y (A > 8 0 ) n u c l e i ; h o w e v e r, r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e d i s c r e p a n c i e s a r e fo u n d b e tw e e n t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s a n d e x p e r im e n t a l v a l u e s a r o u n d m a ss 220 (s e e f i g u r e 2. 7 ). M o l l e r a n d N i x com m ented t h a t t h i s p r o b le m may a r i s e fr o m th e p r e s e n c e o f a s t a t i c o c t u p o le co m p o n e n t i n th e g r o u n d s t a t e s h a p e o f Ra a n d Th i s o t o p e s (Mo 8 1 a ). T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i n s p i r e d s e v e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f g r o u n d s t a t e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y s u r f a c e s o f Ra a n d T h. The m o st p r o m in e n t o f t h e s e a r e s t u d i e s b y L e a n d e r, e t a l., (L e 8 2 a ) a n d b y N a z a r e w ic z, e t a l. (N a 8 4 b ). B o t h s t u d i e s i n c l u d e d q u a d r u p o le, o c t u p o le a n d h e x a d e c a p o l e d e g r e e s o f fre e d o m a n d c o n c lu d e d t h a t s t a b l e o c t u p o le d e fo r m e d m in im a do o c c u r i n th e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y s u r f a c e s f o r s e v e r a l Ra a n d T h i s o t o p e s. I n p a r t i c u l a r, th e r e s u l t s o f N a z a r e w ic z, e t a l. ( s e e f i g u r e 2. 8 ) p r e d i c t t h a t ' 224R a a n d ^ ^ h a v e s t a t i c s h a p e s w h ic h i n c l u d e b o t h q u a d r u p o le a n d o c t u p o le m om ents. N a z a r e w ic z, e t a l. a l s o e x t e n d e d th e c a l c u l a t i o n s t o o t h e r r e g i o n s o f th e p e r i o d i c t a b l e a n d fo u n d t h a t h i s m e th o d p r e d i c t e d a s h a l lo w s t a t i c o c t u p o le d e fo r m e d m i n i mum i n th e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y s u r f a c e o f th e 146Ba g r o u n d s t a t e a s w e l l. We s h o u l d n o t e h e r e t h a t a c o m p le te a n a l y s i s o f g r o u n d s t a t e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g i e s w o u ld i n c l u d e a s f r e e p a r a m e t e r s a l a r g e num ber o f m u l t i p o l e s o f o r d e r h i g h e r t h a n h e x a d e c a p o le a s w e l l a s th e lo w e r o r d e r s i n c l u d e d i n (N a 8 4 b ). H o w e v e r, s u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e i m p r a c t i c a l on c o n v e n t i o n a l c o m p u t in g e q u ip m e n t. I n s t e a d, N a z a r e w ic z sh ow ed t h a t th e i n c l u s i o n o f a n d c o m p o n e n ts o f r e a s o n a b l e s i z e w o u ld a f f e c t th e

68 F i g u r e 2.7 A c o m p a r is o n o f g r o u n d s t a t e m i c r o s c o p i c e n e r g i e s, a s c a l c u l a t e d i n (Mo 8 1 b ), t o e x p e r im e n t a l v a l u e s f o r 1323 n u c l i d e s (Mo 8 1 b ). The b o tto m l i n e sh o w s th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n e x p e r im e n t a l a n d c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s. I s o t o p e s a r e c o n n e c t e d b y l i n e s. The l a r g e d i s c r e p a n c y a r i s i n g i n Ra a n d T h i s l o c a t e d n e a r n e u t r o n num ber 134.

69 G r o u n d - S t a t e M i c r o s c o p i c E n e r g y ( M e V ) 10 i- 0 : r 0 : r i i i 1 m i i i [ i r i i i i i i i i m t i ir i i i i i it i \ i i i r i'i r~p "ii i r r i i i i i i i i i i i i > \ Ilf! Experimental Discrepancy (Expt. - Calc.) Microscopic zero-p oin t energies \il1lli Ill1iiii1i»t'1\*i*I\t*»Ii*t\I*i\\\i\it1*Ii'I1ii*1*ill1itii\,ti,I Neutron Number N

70 -42- p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y b y s m a l l a m o u n ts, l e s s t h a n.5 MeV, i n q u a d r u p o le s h a p e s r a n g i n g fro m s p h e r i c a l to e x tre m e e l o n g a t i o n ( 3 2 = 1. 0 ). T h i s r e s u l t l e n t c r e d i b i l i t y to h i s d e l e t i o n o f h i g h e r m om ents fr o m h i s c a l c u l a t i o n. A r o u g h d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e e n e r g y s p e c t r a a r i s i n g fro m d i f f e r e n t fo r m s o f o c t u p o le c o l l e c t i v i t y h a s b e e n g i v e n i n r e f e r e n c e (L e 8 2 a ). A s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 2. 8, th e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y s u r f a c e s a r e s y m m e tr ic a b o u t C o n s e q u e n t ly, when th e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y i s m in im iz e d w it h r e s p e c t t o 3 ^ anc^ 3 4 an<3 p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f 3 ^, th e r e s u l t a p p e a r s a s i n f i g u r e I f th e p o t e n t i a l b a r r i e r b e tw e e n th e tw o m in im a i s i n f i n i t e, a p e r f e c t l y s t a t i c sh a p e r e s u l t s a n d th e e n e r g y l e v e l se q u e n c e i s 0 +, 1 ", 2+, 3 ", e t c. F o r a f i n i t e b a r r i e r, t u n n e l i n g b e tw e e n th e m in im a r e s u l t s i n th e d i s p la c e m e n t o f th e n e g a t i v e - p a r i t y s t a t e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o th e p o s i t i v e - p a r i t y s t a t e s. F i n a l l y, i n th e p u r e l y v i b r a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n th e n e g a t i v e - p a r i t y s t a t e s a r e d i s p l a c e d r e l a t i v e t o th e g r o u n d s t a t e b y th e one ph o n o n e n e r g y, Tiw-j. The d e fo rm e d t o v i b r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n d e p i c t e d h e r e i s p r e c i s e l y t h a t to w h ic h we r e f e r r e d i n th e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n. The i d e a o f a s t a t i c o c t u p o le sh a p e h a s a l s o b e e n a p p l i e d t o e x p l a i n an a p p a r e n t a n o m a ly i n th e h i g h s p i n b e h a v i o r o f T h. D u d ek, e t a l. (D u 8 2 ) fo u n d t h a t th e c r a n k i n g m o d e l b a s e d o n l y on q u a d r u p o le a n d h e x a d e c a p o le d e f o r m a t io n s p r e d i c t e d a p r o n o u n c e d b a c k b e n d, a r o t a t i o n a l s i g n a t u r e o f th e b r e a k i n g o f a p a i r o f n u c le o n s a t a p a r t i c u l a r r o t a t i o n a l f r e q u e n c y ( b e c a u s e o f C o r i o l i s e f f e c t s ), on th e y r a s t l i n e i n 222Th ( s e e f i g u r e ). S u b s e q u e n t m e a su re m e n ts o f th e e x c i t a t i o n s p e c t r u m o f 222Th w ere n o t r e p r o d u c e d b y t h i s p r e d i c t i o n (B o 8 5, Wa 8 3 ).

71 F i g u r e 2. 8 P o t e n t i a l e n e r g y s u r f a c e s f o r th e g r o u n d s t a t e s o f B a, R a, 222Ra a n d 224Ra a s p r e s e n t e d i n (N a 8 4 b ). The e n e r g y i s m in im iz e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o 8 4 a t e a c h p o i n t, a n d th e 8 5 a n d 8 6 p a r a m e t e r s a r e s e t a s f u n c t i o n s o f 8 ^/ 8 3 a n i3 8 4 e x p r e s s i o n s s t a t e d i n th e r e f e r e n c e. The c o n t o u r l i n e s a r e 0.1 MeV a p a r t. The d a s h e d l i n e s i n th e 220Ra s u r f a c e t r a c e th e p a t h o f maximum s o f t n e s s ( t h e m o st l i k e l y p a t h f o r o s c i l l a t i o n s ) i n th e ( ) p l a n e.

72 I CO <T I 91*0 zsl 80*0 0*0 :S/ freo 91*0 80*0 0*0 80*0- '222

C o r p o r a t e l i f e i n A n c i e n t I n d i a e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f

C o r p o r a t e l i f e i n A n c i e n t I n d i a e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f C H A P T E R I G E N E S I S A N D GROWTH OF G U IL D S C o r p o r a t e l i f e i n A n c i e n t I n d i a e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f i n a v a r i e t y o f f o r m s - s o c i a l, r e l i g i

More information

ABSTRACT. Spin Alignment in 12C+12C Inelastic Scattering. Stephen Joseph Willett. Yale University 1981

ABSTRACT. Spin Alignment in 12C+12C Inelastic Scattering. Stephen Joseph Willett. Yale University 1981 ABSTRACT Spin Alignment in 12C+12C Inelastic Scattering Stephen Joseph Willett Yale University 1981 The excitation function of 12c+l2C scattering has been characterized by numerous resonances (total width

More information

A L A BA M A L A W R E V IE W

A L A BA M A L A W R E V IE W A L A BA M A L A W R E V IE W Volume 52 Fall 2000 Number 1 B E F O R E D I S A B I L I T Y C I V I L R I G HT S : C I V I L W A R P E N S I O N S A N D TH E P O L I T I C S O F D I S A B I L I T Y I N

More information

Form and content. Iowa Research Online. University of Iowa. Ann A Rahim Khan University of Iowa. Theses and Dissertations

Form and content. Iowa Research Online. University of Iowa. Ann A Rahim Khan University of Iowa. Theses and Dissertations University of Iowa Iowa Research Online Theses and Dissertations 1979 Form and content Ann A Rahim Khan University of Iowa Posted with permission of the author. This thesis is available at Iowa Research

More information

Breakup of weakly bound nuclei and its influence on fusion. Paulo R. S. Gomes Univ. Fed. Fluminense (UFF), Niteroi, Brazil

Breakup of weakly bound nuclei and its influence on fusion. Paulo R. S. Gomes Univ. Fed. Fluminense (UFF), Niteroi, Brazil Breakup of weakly bound nuclei and its influence on fusion Paulo R. S. Gomes Univ. Fed. Fluminense (UFF), Niteroi, Brazil Forum Brasil-JINR Dubna, June, 2015 For a comprehensive review of this subject

More information

The Ability C ongress held at the Shoreham Hotel Decem ber 29 to 31, was a reco rd breaker for winter C ongresses.

The Ability C ongress held at the Shoreham Hotel Decem ber 29 to 31, was a reco rd breaker for winter C ongresses. The Ability C ongress held at the Shoreham Hotel Decem ber 29 to 31, was a reco rd breaker for winter C ongresses. Attended by m ore than 3 00 people, all seem ed delighted, with the lectu res and sem

More information

c. What is the average rate of change of f on the interval [, ]? Answer: d. What is a local minimum value of f? Answer: 5 e. On what interval(s) is f

c. What is the average rate of change of f on the interval [, ]? Answer: d. What is a local minimum value of f? Answer: 5 e. On what interval(s) is f Essential Skills Chapter f ( x + h) f ( x ). Simplifying the difference quotient Section. h f ( x + h) f ( x ) Example: For f ( x) = 4x 4 x, find and simplify completely. h Answer: 4 8x 4 h. Finding the

More information

the first reaction and by detection of evaporated neutrons in the second. Gamma ray spectra were collected in coincidence with these triggers using

the first reaction and by detection of evaporated neutrons in the second. Gamma ray spectra were collected in coincidence with these triggers using ABSTRACT Broken Reflection Symmetry (And Isospin Dependence of Enhanced El Transition) In 114Xe Steven Louis Rugari Yale University 1992 We have carried out a search for broken reflection symmetry in the

More information

Abstract. Microscopic Study of Enhanced El Transitions in. Anna Catherine Hayes. Yale University, 1986

Abstract. Microscopic Study of Enhanced El Transitions in. Anna Catherine Hayes. Yale University, 1986 Abstract Microscopic Study of Enhanced El Transitions in 18 O Anna Catherine Hayes Yale University, 1986 It is well known that light nuclei exhibit the coexistence of collective and single particle degrees

More information

LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses

LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School 1976 Infestation of Root Nodules of Soybean by Larvae of the Bean Leaf Beetle, Cerotoma Trifurcata

More information

SPU TTERIN G F R O M A LIQ U ID -PH A SE G A -IN EUTECTIC ALLOY KEVIN M A R K H U B B A R D YALE UNIVER SITY M A Y

SPU TTERIN G F R O M A LIQ U ID -PH A SE G A -IN EUTECTIC ALLOY KEVIN M A R K H U B B A R D YALE UNIVER SITY M A Y SPU TTERIN G F R O M A LIQ U ID -PH A SE G A -IN EUTECTIC ALLOY KEVIN M A R K H U B B A R D YALE UNIVER SITY M A Y 1 9 8 9 ABSTRACT S p u t t e r i n g f r o m a L i q u i d - P h a s e G a - I n E u t

More information

Beechwood Music Department Staff

Beechwood Music Department Staff Beechwood Music Department Staff MRS SARAH KERSHAW - HEAD OF MUSIC S a ra h K e rs h a w t r a i n e d a t t h e R oy a l We ls h C o l le g e of M u s i c a n d D ra m a w h e re s h e ob t a i n e d

More information

Information System Desig

Information System Desig n IT60105 Lecture 7 Unified Modeling Language Lecture #07 Unified Modeling Language Introduction to UML Applications of UML UML Definition Learning UML Things in UML Structural Things Behavioral Things

More information

Nuclear Structure (II) Collective models

Nuclear Structure (II) Collective models Nuclear Structure (II) Collective models P. Van Isacker, GANIL, France NSDD Workshop, Trieste, March 2014 TALENT school TALENT (Training in Advanced Low-Energy Nuclear Theory, see http://www.nucleartalent.org).

More information

Class Diagrams. CSC 440/540: Software Engineering Slide #1

Class Diagrams. CSC 440/540: Software Engineering Slide #1 Class Diagrams CSC 440/540: Software Engineering Slide # Topics. Design class diagrams (DCDs) 2. DCD development process 3. Associations and Attributes 4. Dependencies 5. Composition and Constraints 6.

More information

176 5 t h Fl oo r. 337 P o ly me r Ma te ri al s

176 5 t h Fl oo r. 337 P o ly me r Ma te ri al s A g la di ou s F. L. 462 E l ec tr on ic D ev el op me nt A i ng er A.W.S. 371 C. A. M. A l ex an de r 236 A d mi ni st ra ti on R. H. (M rs ) A n dr ew s P. V. 326 O p ti ca l Tr an sm is si on A p ps

More information

14. Structure of Nuclei

14. Structure of Nuclei 14. Structure of Nuclei Particle and Nuclear Physics Dr. Tina Potter Dr. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 1 In this section... Magic Numbers The Nuclear Shell Model Excited States Dr. Tina Potter 14.

More information

Grain Reserves, Volatility and the WTO

Grain Reserves, Volatility and the WTO Grain Reserves, Volatility and the WTO Sophia Murphy Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy www.iatp.org Is v o la tility a b a d th in g? De pe n d s o n w h e re yo u s it (pro d uc e r, tra d e

More information

Table of C on t en t s Global Campus 21 in N umbe r s R e g ional Capac it y D e v e lopme nt in E-L e ar ning Structure a n d C o m p o n en ts R ea

Table of C on t en t s Global Campus 21 in N umbe r s R e g ional Capac it y D e v e lopme nt in E-L e ar ning Structure a n d C o m p o n en ts R ea G Blended L ea r ni ng P r o g r a m R eg i o na l C a p a c i t y D ev elo p m ent i n E -L ea r ni ng H R K C r o s s o r d e r u c a t i o n a n d v e l o p m e n t C o p e r a t i o n 3 0 6 0 7 0 5

More information

Nuclear structure aspects of Schiff Moments. N.Auerbach Tel Aviv University and MSU

Nuclear structure aspects of Schiff Moments. N.Auerbach Tel Aviv University and MSU Nuclear structure aspects of Schiff Moments N.Auerbach Tel Aviv University and MSU T-P-odd electromagnetic moments In the absence of parity (P) and time (T) reversal violation the T P-odd moments for a

More information

gender mains treaming in Polis h practice

gender mains treaming in Polis h practice gender mains treaming in Polis h practice B E R L IN, 1 9-2 1 T H A P R IL, 2 O O 7 Gender mains treaming at national level Parliament 25 % of women in S ejm (Lower Chamber) 16 % of women in S enat (Upper

More information

OH BOY! Story. N a r r a t iv e a n d o bj e c t s th ea t e r Fo r a l l a g e s, fr o m th e a ge of 9

OH BOY! Story. N a r r a t iv e a n d o bj e c t s th ea t e r Fo r a l l a g e s, fr o m th e a ge of 9 OH BOY! O h Boy!, was or igin a lly cr eat ed in F r en ch an d was a m a jor s u cc ess on t h e Fr en ch st a ge f or young au di enc es. It h a s b een s een by ap pr ox i ma t ely 175,000 sp ect at

More information

S U E K E AY S S H A R O N T IM B E R W IN D M A R T Z -PA U L L IN. Carlisle Franklin Springboro. Clearcreek TWP. Middletown. Turtlecreek TWP.

S U E K E AY S S H A R O N T IM B E R W IN D M A R T Z -PA U L L IN. Carlisle Franklin Springboro. Clearcreek TWP. Middletown. Turtlecreek TWP. F R A N K L IN M A D IS O N S U E R O B E R T LE IC H T Y A LY C E C H A M B E R L A IN T W IN C R E E K M A R T Z -PA U L L IN C O R A O W E N M E A D O W L A R K W R E N N LA N T IS R E D R O B IN F

More information

Shell model Monte Carlo level density calculations in the rare-earth region

Shell model Monte Carlo level density calculations in the rare-earth region Shell model Monte Carlo level density calculations in the rare-earth region Kadir Has University Istanbul, Turkey Workshop on Gamma Strength and Level Density in Nuclear Physics and Nuclear Technology

More information

Oblate nuclear shapes and shape coexistence in neutron-deficient rare earth isotopes

Oblate nuclear shapes and shape coexistence in neutron-deficient rare earth isotopes Oblate nuclear shapes and shape coexistence in neutron-deficient rare earth isotopes Andreas Görgen Service de Physique Nucléaire CEA Saclay Sunniva Siem Department of Physics University of Oslo 1 Context

More information

STEEL PIPE NIPPLE BLACK AND GALVANIZED

STEEL PIPE NIPPLE BLACK AND GALVANIZED Price Sheet Effective August 09, 2018 Supersedes CWN-218 A Member of The Phoenix Forge Group CapProducts LTD. Phone: 519-482-5000 Fax: 519-482-7728 Toll Free: 800-265-5586 www.capproducts.com www.capitolcamco.com

More information

T H E ' B R I T M E f f B 'l T A R Y D O C U M E N T S U P P l Y C E N T R E

T H E ' B R I T M E f f B 'l T A R Y D O C U M E N T S U P P l Y C E N T R E T H E ' B R I T M E f f B 'l T A R Y D O C U M E N T S U P P l Y C E N T R E y \ ( A. p \ - W e r e g r e t t h a t th is v o lu m e is u n s u ita b le f o r film in g a n d w e a r e, t h e r e f o r

More information

Statistical properties of nuclei by the shell model Monte Carlo method

Statistical properties of nuclei by the shell model Monte Carlo method Statistical properties of nuclei by the shell model Monte Carlo method Introduction Yoram Alhassid (Yale University) Shell model Monte Carlo (SMMC) method Circumventing the odd particle-number sign problem

More information

S ca le M o d e l o f th e S o la r Sy ste m

S ca le M o d e l o f th e S o la r Sy ste m N a m e ' D a t e ' S ca le M o d e l o f th e S o la r Sy ste m 6.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n T h e S olar System is large, at least w hen com pared to distances we are fam iliar w ith on a day-to-day basis.

More information

Nuclear Structure V: Application to Time-Reversal Violation (and Atomic Electric Dipole Moments)

Nuclear Structure V: Application to Time-Reversal Violation (and Atomic Electric Dipole Moments) T Symmetry EDM s Octupole Deformation Other Nuclei Nuclear Structure V: Application to Time-Reversal Violation (and Atomic Electric Dipole Moments) J. Engel University of North Carolina June 16, 2005 T

More information

Fission fragment mass distributions via prompt γ -ray spectroscopy

Fission fragment mass distributions via prompt γ -ray spectroscopy PRAMANA c Indian Academy of Sciences Vol. 85, No. 3 journal of September 2015 physics pp. 379 384 Fission fragment mass distributions via prompt γ -ray spectroscopy L S DANU, D C BISWAS, B K NAYAK and

More information

Software Process Models there are many process model s in th e li t e ra t u re, s om e a r e prescriptions and some are descriptions you need to mode

Software Process Models there are many process model s in th e li t e ra t u re, s om e a r e prescriptions and some are descriptions you need to mode Unit 2 : Software Process O b j ec t i ve This unit introduces software systems engineering through a discussion of software processes and their principal characteristics. In order to achieve the desireable

More information

Nuclear vibrations and rotations

Nuclear vibrations and rotations Nuclear vibrations and rotations Introduction to Nuclear Science Simon Fraser University Spring 2011 NUCS 342 February 2, 2011 NUCS 342 (Lecture 9) February 2, 2011 1 / 29 Outline 1 Significance of collective

More information

ELECTRIC MONOPOLE TRANSITIONS AND STRUCTURE OF 150 Sm

ELECTRIC MONOPOLE TRANSITIONS AND STRUCTURE OF 150 Sm NUCLEAR PHYSICS ELECTRIC MONOPOLE TRANSITIONS AND STRUCTURE OF 150 Sm SOHAIR M. DIAB Faculty of Education, Phys. Dept., Ain Shams University, Cairo, Roxy, Egypt Received May 16, 2007 The contour plot of

More information

Nuclear Shell model. C. Prediction of spins and Parities: GROUND RULES 1. Even-Even Nuclei. I π = 0 +

Nuclear Shell model. C. Prediction of spins and Parities: GROUND RULES 1. Even-Even Nuclei. I π = 0 + Nuclear Shell model C. Prediction of spins and Parities: GOUND ULES 1. Even-Even Nuclei I π = 0 + ULE: ll nucleon orbitals are filled pairwise, i.e., ν,l, j, m j state followed by ν, l, j, m j state NO

More information

Probing neutron-rich isotopes around doubly closed-shell 132 Sn and doubly mid-shell 170 Dy by combined β-γ and isomer spectroscopy.

Probing neutron-rich isotopes around doubly closed-shell 132 Sn and doubly mid-shell 170 Dy by combined β-γ and isomer spectroscopy. Probing neutron-rich isotopes around doubly closed-shell 132 Sn and doubly mid-shell 170 Dy by combined β-γ and isomer spectroscopy Hiroshi Watanabe Outline Prospects for decay spectroscopy of neutron-rich

More information

Fusion probability and survivability in estimates of heaviest nuclei production R.N. Sagaidak Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions, JINR, Dubna, RF

Fusion probability and survivability in estimates of heaviest nuclei production R.N. Sagaidak Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions, JINR, Dubna, RF Fusion probability and survivability in estimates of heaviest nuclei production R.N. Sagaidak Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions, JINR, Dubna, RF 1. Fusion probability and survivability as main values

More information

B ooks Expans ion on S ciencedirect: 2007:

B ooks Expans ion on S ciencedirect: 2007: B ooks Expans ion on S ciencedirect: 2007: 1 INFORUM, 22-24 May, Prague Piotr Golkiewicz Account Manager Elsevier B.V. Email: p.golkiewicz@elsevier.com Mobile: +48 695 30 60 17 2 Pres entation Overview

More information

EKOLOGIE EN SYSTEMATIEK. T h is p a p e r n o t to be c i t e d w ith o u t p r i o r r e f e r e n c e to th e a u th o r. PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY.

EKOLOGIE EN SYSTEMATIEK. T h is p a p e r n o t to be c i t e d w ith o u t p r i o r r e f e r e n c e to th e a u th o r. PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY. EKOLOGIE EN SYSTEMATIEK Ç.I.P.S. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE POLLUTION IN NORT H SEA. TECHNICAL REPORT 1971/O : B i o l. I T h is p a p e r n o t to be c i t e d w ith o u t p r i o r r e f e r e n c e to

More information

Early onset of deformation in the neutron-deficient polonium isotopes identified by in-source resonant ionization laser spectroscopy

Early onset of deformation in the neutron-deficient polonium isotopes identified by in-source resonant ionization laser spectroscopy Early onset of deformation in the neutron-deficient polonium isotopes identified by in-source resonant ionization laser scopy, W. Dexters, M.D. Seliverstov, A.N. Andreyev, S. Antalic, A.E. Barzakh, B.

More information

Comparative Analyses of Teacher Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior in a Traditional and an Openspace

Comparative Analyses of Teacher Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior in a Traditional and an Openspace East Tennessee State University Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University Electronic Theses and Dissertations June 1975 Comparative Analyses of Teacher Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior in a Traditional

More information

Joint ICTP-IAEA Workshop on Nuclear Structure Decay Data: Theory and Evaluation August Introduction to Nuclear Physics - 2

Joint ICTP-IAEA Workshop on Nuclear Structure Decay Data: Theory and Evaluation August Introduction to Nuclear Physics - 2 2358-20 Joint ICTP-IAEA Workshop on Nuclear Structure Decay Data: Theory and Evaluation 6-17 August 2012 Introduction to Nuclear Physics - 2 P. Van Isacker GANIL, Grand Accelerateur National d'ions Lourds

More information

LU N C H IN C LU D E D

LU N C H IN C LU D E D Week 1 M o n d a y J a n u a ry 7 - C o lo u rs o f th e R a in b o w W e w ill b e k ic k in g o ff th e h o lid a y s w ith a d a y fu ll o f c o lo u r! J o in u s fo r a ra n g e o f a rt, s p o rt

More information

Search for a Permanent Electric Dipole Moment in Ra EDM Spin EDM Spin EDM. Spin. Pseudo-scalar. s d

Search for a Permanent Electric Dipole Moment in Ra EDM Spin EDM Spin EDM. Spin. Pseudo-scalar. s d Search for a Permanent Electric Dipole Moment in Ra-225 + T + P - - - + EDM Spin EDM Spin EDM Spin Pseudo-scalar s d C. S. Wu 1912-1997 Parity (space reversal) x, y, z -x, -y, -z z y Parity z x x y Pseudo-scalar

More information

Composite Nucleus (Activated Complex)

Composite Nucleus (Activated Complex) Lecture 10: Nuclear Potentials and Radioactive Decay I. Nuclear Stability and Basic Decay Modes A. Schematic Representation: Synthesis Equilibration Decay X + Y + Energy A Z * Z ( 10 20 s) ( ~ 10 16 10

More information

EDM. Spin. ν e. β - Li + Supported by DOE, Office of Nuclear Physics

EDM. Spin. ν e. β - Li + Supported by DOE, Office of Nuclear Physics T + - + - He Ra EDM Spin EDM Spin β - θ ν e He Kr 6 He 6 Li + Supported by DOE, Office of Nuclear Physics Search for a Permanent Electric Dipole Moment in Ra-225 + T + P - - - + EDM Spin EDM Spin EDM Spin

More information

Laser Spectroscopy on Bunched Radioactive Ion Beams

Laser Spectroscopy on Bunched Radioactive Ion Beams Laser Spectroscopy on Bunched Radioactive Ion Beams Jon Billowes University of Manchester Balkan School on Nuclear Physics, Bodrum 2004 Lecture 1. 1.1 Nuclear moments 1.2 Hyperfine interaction in free

More information

Neutron Capture Experiments with DANCE

Neutron Capture Experiments with DANCE Neutron Capture Experiments with DANCE G. E. Mitchell North Carolina State University Raleigh, NC USA This work was supported in part by the U. S. DoE Grants No. DE-FG52-06NA26194 and DE-FG02-97-ER41042.

More information

Dipole Response of Exotic Nuclei and Symmetry Energy Experiments at the LAND R 3 B Setup

Dipole Response of Exotic Nuclei and Symmetry Energy Experiments at the LAND R 3 B Setup Dipole Response of Exotic Nuclei and Symmetry Energy Experiments at the LAND R 3 B Setup Dominic Rossi for the LAND collaboration GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung GmbH D 64291 Darmstadt, Germany

More information

T h e C S E T I P r o j e c t

T h e C S E T I P r o j e c t T h e P r o j e c t T H E P R O J E C T T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S A r t i c l e P a g e C o m p r e h e n s i v e A s s es s m e n t o f t h e U F O / E T I P h e n o m e n o n M a y 1 9 9 1 1 E T

More information

Alpha Decay. Decay alpha particles are monoenergetic. Nuclides with A>150 are unstable against alpha decay. E α = Q (1-4/A)

Alpha Decay. Decay alpha particles are monoenergetic. Nuclides with A>150 are unstable against alpha decay. E α = Q (1-4/A) Alpha Decay Because the binding energy of the alpha particle is so large (28.3 MeV), it is often energetically favorable for a heavy nucleus to emit an alpha particle Nuclides with A>150 are unstable against

More information

More Energetics of Alpha Decay The energy released in decay, Q, is determined by the difference in mass of the parent nucleus and the decay products, which include the daughter nucleus and the particle.

More information

Nuclear and Radiation Physics

Nuclear and Radiation Physics 501503742 Nuclear and Radiation Physics Why nuclear physics? Why radiation physics? Why in Jordan? Interdisciplinary. Applied? 1 Subjects to be covered Nuclear properties. Nuclear forces. Nuclear matter.

More information

Pairing and ( 9 2 )n configuration in nuclei in the 208 Pb region

Pairing and ( 9 2 )n configuration in nuclei in the 208 Pb region Pairing and ( 9 2 )n configuration in nuclei in the 208 Pb region M. Stepanov 1, L. Imasheva 1, B. Ishkhanov 1,2, and T. Tretyakova 2, 1 Faculty of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991

More information

Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST D

Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST D Lesson eight What are characteristics of chemical reactions? Science Constructing Explanations, Engaging in Argument and Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS Reading

More information

600 Billy Smith Road, Athens, VT

600 Billy Smith Road, Athens, VT 600 Billy Smith Road, Athens, VT Curtis Trousdale, Owner, Broker, Realtor Cell: 802-233-5589 curtis@preferredpropertiesvt.com 2004 Williston Road, South Burlington VT 05403 www.preferredpropertiesvt.com

More information

RFSS: Lecture 6 Gamma Decay

RFSS: Lecture 6 Gamma Decay RFSS: Lecture 6 Gamma Decay Readings: Modern Nuclear Chemistry, Chap. 9; Nuclear and Radiochemistry, Chapter 3 Energetics Decay Types Transition Probabilities Internal Conversion Angular Correlations Moessbauer

More information

Antimagnetic Rotation in Cd isotopes

Antimagnetic Rotation in Cd isotopes Proceedings of the DAE Symp. on Nucl. Phys. 56 (2011) 3 Antimagnetic Rotation in Cd isotopes S.Chattopadhyay,* and S. Roy Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata - 700064, INDIA. * email: Sukalyan.chattopadhyay@saha.ac.in

More information

Candidate multiple chiral doublet bands in A 100 mass region

Candidate multiple chiral doublet bands in A 100 mass region Candidate multiple chiral doublet bands in A 100 mass region Bin Qi (R) School of Space Science and Physics, Shandong University, Weihai Seventh International Symposium on Chiral Symmetry in Hadrons and

More information

Chapter 6. Summary and Conclusions

Chapter 6. Summary and Conclusions Chapter 6 Summary and Conclusions The basic aim of the present thesis was to understand the interplay between single particle and collective degrees of freedom and underlying nuclear phenomenon in mass

More information

In this lecture, we will go through the hyperfine structure of atoms. The coupling of nuclear and electronic total angular momentum is explained.

In this lecture, we will go through the hyperfine structure of atoms. The coupling of nuclear and electronic total angular momentum is explained. Lecture : Hyperfine Structure of Spectral Lines: Page- In this lecture, we will go through the hyperfine structure of atoms. Various origins of the hyperfine structure are discussed The coupling of nuclear

More information

Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST D

Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST D Lesson seven What is a chemical reaction? Science Constructing Explanations, Engaging in Argument and Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS Reading Informational Text,

More information

The Ind ian Mynah b ird is no t fro m Vanuat u. It w as b ro ug ht here fro m overseas and is now causing lo t s o f p ro b lem s.

The Ind ian Mynah b ird is no t fro m Vanuat u. It w as b ro ug ht here fro m overseas and is now causing lo t s o f p ro b lem s. The Ind ian Mynah b ird is no t fro m Vanuat u. It w as b ro ug ht here fro m overseas and is now causing lo t s o f p ro b lem s. Mynah b ird s p ush out nat ive b ird s, com p et ing for food and p laces

More information

I M P O R T A N T S A F E T Y I N S T R U C T I O N S W h e n u s i n g t h i s e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e, b a s i c p r e c a u t i o n s s h o

I M P O R T A N T S A F E T Y I N S T R U C T I O N S W h e n u s i n g t h i s e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e, b a s i c p r e c a u t i o n s s h o I M P O R T A N T S A F E T Y I N S T R U C T I O N S W h e n u s i n g t h i s e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e, b a s i c p r e c a u t i o n s s h o u l d a l w a y s b e t a k e n, i n c l u d f o l

More information

PHL424: Nuclear fusion

PHL424: Nuclear fusion PHL424: Nuclear fusion Hot Fusion 5 10 15 5 10 8 projectiles on target compound nuclei 1 atom Hot fusion (1961 1974) successful up to element 106 (Seaborgium) Coulomb barrier V C between projectile and

More information

APEX CARE INSTITUTE FOR PG - TRB, SLET AND NET IN PHYSICS

APEX CARE INSTITUTE FOR PG - TRB, SLET AND NET IN PHYSICS Page 1 1. Within the nucleus, the charge distribution A) Is constant, but falls to zero sharply at the nuclear radius B) Increases linearly from the centre, but falls off exponentially at the surface C)

More information

INTERIM MANAGEMENT REPORT FIRST HALF OF 2018

INTERIM MANAGEMENT REPORT FIRST HALF OF 2018 INTERIM MANAGEMENT REPORT FIRST HALF OF 2018 F r e e t r a n s l a t ion f r o m t h e o r ig ina l in S p a n is h. I n t h e e v e n t o f d i s c r e p a n c y, t h e Sp a n i s h - la n g u a g e v

More information

Nuclear Physics Part 2A: Radioactive Decays

Nuclear Physics Part 2A: Radioactive Decays Nuclear Physics Part 2A: Radioactive Decays Last modified: 23/10/2018 Links What is a Decay? Alpha Decay Definition Q-value Example Not Every Alpha Decay is Possible Beta Decay β rays are electrons Anti-particles

More information

Radon-EDM Experiment

Radon-EDM Experiment Radon-EDM Experiment Eric Tardiff, Tim Chupp, Wolfgang Lorenzon (University of Michigan) John Behr, Matt Pearson, Gordon Ball, Greg Hackman, Martin Smith (TRIUMF) Carl Svensson, Andrew Phillips (Guelph)

More information

HALF-LIVES OF NUCLEI AROUND THE SUPERHEAVY NUCLEUS

HALF-LIVES OF NUCLEI AROUND THE SUPERHEAVY NUCLEUS v.2.1r20180507 *2018.6.26#58fe9efc HALF-LIVES OF NUCLEI AROUND THE SUPERHEAVY NUCLEUS 304 120 A. O. SILIŞTEANU 1,3, C. I. ANGHEL 1,2,, I. SILIŞTEANU 1 1 Horia Hulubei National Institute of Physics and

More information

B(E2) value of even-even Pd isotopes by interacting boson model-1 *

B(E2) value of even-even Pd isotopes by interacting boson model-1 * B(E) value of even-even 8- Pd isotopes by interacting boson model- * I. Hossain, H. Y. Abdullah, I. M. Ahmad 3, M. A. Saeed 4 Department of Physics, Rabigh College of Science and Arts, King Abdulaziz University,

More information

University Microfilms

University Microfilms University Microfilms International * i---------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART N ATIO NAL HI IH l A l l o t ST AN PAR P S II A

More information

ARC 202L. Not e s : I n s t r u c t o r s : D e J a r n e t t, L i n, O r t e n b e r g, P a n g, P r i t c h a r d - S c h m i t z b e r g e r

ARC 202L. Not e s : I n s t r u c t o r s : D e J a r n e t t, L i n, O r t e n b e r g, P a n g, P r i t c h a r d - S c h m i t z b e r g e r ARC 202L C A L I F O R N I A S T A T E P O L Y T E C H N I C U N I V E R S I T Y D E P A R T M E N T O F A R C H I T E C T U R E A R C 2 0 2 L - A R C H I T E C T U R A L S T U D I O W I N T E R Q U A

More information

SURROGATE REACTIONS. An overview of papers by Jason Burke from LLNL

SURROGATE REACTIONS. An overview of papers by Jason Burke from LLNL SURROGATE REACTIONS An overview of papers by Jason Burke from LLNL Compound Nuclear Reaction cross sections Cross sections for compound-nuclear reactions are required input for astrophysical models and

More information

Nuclear Decays. Alpha Decay

Nuclear Decays. Alpha Decay Nuclear Decays The first evidence of radioactivity was a photographic plate, wrapped in black paper and placed under a piece of uranium salt by Henri Becquerel on February 26, 1896. Like many events in

More information

Results as of 30 September 2018

Results as of 30 September 2018 rt Results as of 30 September 2018 F r e e t r a n s l a t ion f r o m t h e o r ig ina l in S p a n is h. I n t h e e v e n t o f d i s c r e p a n c y, t h e Sp a n i s h - la n g u a g e v e r s ion

More information

The shell model Monte Carlo approach to level densities: recent developments and perspectives

The shell model Monte Carlo approach to level densities: recent developments and perspectives The shell model Monte Carlo approach to level densities: recent developments and perspectives Yoram Alhassid (Yale University) Introduction: the shell model Monte Carlo (SMMC) approach Level density in

More information

Status of the Search for an EDM of 225 Ra

Status of the Search for an EDM of 225 Ra Status of the Search for an EDM of 225 Ra I. Ahmad, K. Bailey, J. Guest, R. J. Holt, Z.-T. Lu, T. O Connor, D. H. Potterveld, N. D. Scielzo Roy Holt Lepton Moments 2006 Cape Cod Outline Why is an EDM interesting?

More information

A Comparison between Channel Selections in Heavy Ion Reactions

A Comparison between Channel Selections in Heavy Ion Reactions Brazilian Journal of Physics, vol. 39, no. 1, March, 2009 55 A Comparison between Channel Selections in Heavy Ion Reactions S. Mohammadi Physics Department, Payame Noor University, Mashad 91735, IRAN (Received

More information

I zm ir I nstiute of Technology CS Lecture Notes are based on the CS 101 notes at the University of I llinois at Urbana-Cham paign

I zm ir I nstiute of Technology CS Lecture Notes are based on the CS 101 notes at the University of I llinois at Urbana-Cham paign I zm ir I nstiute of Technology CS - 1 0 2 Lecture 1 Lecture Notes are based on the CS 101 notes at the University of I llinois at Urbana-Cham paign I zm ir I nstiute of Technology W hat w ill I learn

More information

Early onset of deformation in the neutron-deficient polonium isotopes identified by in-source resonant ionization laser spectroscopy

Early onset of deformation in the neutron-deficient polonium isotopes identified by in-source resonant ionization laser spectroscopy Early onset of deformation in the neutron-deficient polonium isotopes identified by in-source resonant ionization laser spectroscopy, W. Dexters, M.D. Seliverstov, A.N. Andreyev, S. Antalic, A.E. Barzakh,

More information

p-n interactions and The study of exotic nuclei

p-n interactions and The study of exotic nuclei Lecture 3 -- R. F. Casten p-n interactions Estimating the properties of nuclei and The study of exotic nuclei Drivers of structural evolution, the emergence of collectivity, shape-phase transitions, and

More information

Part II Particle and Nuclear Physics Examples Sheet 4

Part II Particle and Nuclear Physics Examples Sheet 4 Part II Particle and Nuclear Physics Examples Sheet 4 T. Potter Lent/Easter Terms 018 Basic Nuclear Properties 8. (B) The Semi-Empirical mass formula (SEMF) for nuclear masses may be written in the form

More information

Nuclear Physics (10 th lecture)

Nuclear Physics (10 th lecture) ~Theta Nuclear Physics ( th lecture) Content Nuclear Collective Model: Rainwater approx. (reinder) Consequences of nuclear deforation o Rotational states High spin states and back bending o Vibrational

More information

25.1. Nuclear Radiation

25.1. Nuclear Radiation Nuclear Radiation Marie Curie was a Polish scientist whose research led to many discoveries about radiation and radioactive elements. In 1934 she died from leukemia caused by her long-term exposure to

More information

Beyond mean-field study on collective vibrations and beta-decay

Beyond mean-field study on collective vibrations and beta-decay Advanced many-body and statistical methods in mesoscopic systems III September 4 th 8 th, 2017, Busteni, Romania Beyond mean-field study on collective vibrations and beta-decay Yifei Niu Collaborators:

More information

Intro to Nuclear and Particle Physics (5110)

Intro to Nuclear and Particle Physics (5110) Intro to Nuclear and Particle Physics (5110) March 13, 009 Nuclear Shell Model continued 3/13/009 1 Atomic Physics Nuclear Physics V = V r f r L r S r Tot Spin-Orbit Interaction ( ) ( ) Spin of e magnetic

More information

RADIOACTIVITY. Nature of Radioactive Emissions

RADIOACTIVITY. Nature of Radioactive Emissions 1 RADIOACTIVITY Radioactivity is the spontaneous emissions from the nucleus of certain atoms, of either alpha, beta or gamma radiation. These radiations are emitted when the nuclei of the radioactive substance

More information

The shape distribution of nuclear level densities in the shell model Monte Carlo method

The shape distribution of nuclear level densities in the shell model Monte Carlo method The shape distribution of nuclear level densities in the shell model Monte Carlo method Introduction Yoram Alhassid (Yale University) Shell model Monte Carlo (SMMC) method and level densities Nuclear deformation

More information

Z is the atomic number, the number of protons: this defines the element. Isotope: Nuclides of an element (i.e. same Z) with different N.

Z is the atomic number, the number of protons: this defines the element. Isotope: Nuclides of an element (i.e. same Z) with different N. Lecture : The nucleus and nuclear instability Nuclei are described using the following nomenclature: A Z Element N Z is the atomic number, the number of protons: this defines the element. A is called the

More information

Carbon Burning in the Universe and the Laboratory

Carbon Burning in the Universe and the Laboratory Carbon Burning in the Universe and the Laboratory X. Tang University of Notre Dame Carbon burning processes in the Universe Carbon burning in the laboratory Limits on the molecular resonance strengths

More information

2007 Fall Nuc Med Physics Lectures

2007 Fall Nuc Med Physics Lectures 2007 Fall Nuc Med Physics Lectures Tuesdays, 9:30am, NN203 Date Title Lecturer 9/4/07 Introduction to Nuclear Physics RS 9/11/07 Decay of radioactivity RS 9/18/07 Interactions with matter RM 9/25/07 Radiation

More information

da u g ht er + radiation

da u g ht er + radiation RADIOACTIVITY The discovery of radioactivity can be attributed to several scientists. Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895 and shortly after that Henri Becquerel observed radioactive behavior while

More information

Lecture 14 Krane Enge Cohen Williams Nuclear Reactions Ch 11 Ch 13 Ch /2 7.5 Reaction dynamics /4 Reaction cross sections 11.

Lecture 14 Krane Enge Cohen Williams Nuclear Reactions Ch 11 Ch 13 Ch /2 7.5 Reaction dynamics /4 Reaction cross sections 11. Lecture 14 Krane Enge Cohen Williams Nuclear Reactions Ch 11 Ch 13 Ch 13 7.1/2 7.5 Reaction dynamics 11.2 13.2 7.3/4 Reaction cross sections 11.4 2.10 Reaction theories compound nucleus 11.10 13.7 13.1-3

More information

Correction to Relativistic Mean Field binding energy and N p N n scheme

Correction to Relativistic Mean Field binding energy and N p N n scheme arxiv:0808.1945v1 [nucl-th] 14 Aug 2008 Correction to Relativistic Mean Field binding energy and N p N n scheme Madhubrata Bhattacharya and G. Gangopadhyay Department of Physics, University of Calcutta

More information

Sodium-Initiated Polymerization of Alpha- Methylstyrene in the Vicinity of Its Reported Ceiling Temperature

Sodium-Initiated Polymerization of Alpha- Methylstyrene in the Vicinity of Its Reported Ceiling Temperature Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College 8-1976 Sodium-Initiated Polymerization of Alpha- Methylstyrene in the Vicinity of Its Reported Ceiling Temperature Shuenn-long

More information

Nuclear and Particle Physics

Nuclear and Particle Physics Nuclear and Particle Physics W. S. С Williams Department of Physics, University of Oxford and St Edmund Hall, Oxford CLARENDON PRESS OXFORD 1991 Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Historical perspective 1 1.2

More information

Functional pottery [slide]

Functional pottery [slide] Functional pottery [slide] by Frank Bevis Fabens A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Fine Arts Montana State University Copyright by Frank Bevis Fabens

More information

Inelastic Neutron Scattering Studies: Relevance to Neutrinoless Double-β Decay. Steven W. Yates

Inelastic Neutron Scattering Studies: Relevance to Neutrinoless Double-β Decay. Steven W. Yates Inelastic Neutron Scattering Studies: Relevance to Neutrinoless Double-β Decay Steven W. Yates TRIUMF Double-β Decay Workshop 13 May 2016 Questions What experimental data should theory reproduce so we

More information

Dangote Flour Mills Plc

Dangote Flour Mills Plc SUMMARY OF OFFER Opening Date 6 th September 27 Closing Date 27 th September 27 Shares on Offer 1.25bn Ord. Shares of 5k each Offer Price Offer Size Market Cap (Post Offer) Minimum Offer N15. per share

More information