Elementary Number Theory Review. Franz Luef

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1 Elementary Number Theory Review

2 Principle of Induction Principle of Induction Suppose we have a sequence of mathematical statements P(1), P(2),... such that (a) P(1) is true. (b) If P(k) is true, then P(k + 1) is true. Then P(n) is true for all n N.

3 Principle of Strong Induction Principle of Strong Induction Suppose we have a sequence of mathematical statements P(1), P(2),... such that (a) P(1) is true. (b) If for all n N, the truth of P(1),..., P(n) implies that P(n + 1) is true. Then P(n) is true for all n N. Principle of Induction and Principle of Strong Induction are equivalent!

4 Division Algorithm Division Algorithm Suppose a and b are non-zero integers. Then there exist unique integers q and r such that 0 r < b and a = bq + r. We call q the quotient and r the remainder. GCD Supoose a and b are integers. Then there exist integers x and y such that ax + by = gcd(a, b).

5 Euclid s Algorithm Most efficient method to compute gcd of two integers. Euclid s Algorithm Suppose a and b are two integers such that a b > 0. Then the following sequence of divisions provides the gcd(a, b) as the last remainder r n : a = q 1 b + r 1 b = q 2 r 1 + r 2 r 1 = q 3 r 2 + r 3. =. r n 2 = q n r n 1 + r n r n 1 = q n+1 r n + 0

6 Euclid s Algorithm Lemma If a = qb + r, then gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r). Euclid s Algorithm Consequences 1 Write r n = r n 2 q n r n 1 2 Express r n 1 as r n 3 q n 1 r n 2 and substitute in the preceding equation for r n : r n = r n 2 q n (r n 3 q n 1 r n 2 ) = (1+q n q n 1 )r n 2 +( q n )r n 3 In this way, we expressed r n in terms of r n 2 and r n 3. 3 Proceeding in this manner we obtain ab expression of gcd(a, b) in terms of a linear combination of a and b.

7 Euclid s Lemma Euclid s Lemma If a prime p divides the product of natural numbers a and b, then p divides a or p divides b. Fundamental Theorem of Arithemtic Each natural number n can be uniquely factored into prime numbers: n = p k 1 1 pkr r

8 Linear Diophantine Equations Linear Diophantine Equations Let a, b be two integers and d = gcd(a, b). Then the linear Diophantine equation ax + by = c has a solution in Z if and only if d c. Furthermore, if x 0, y 0 is a solution, then all other solutions are given by for any t Z. x = x 0 + b d t, y = y 0 a d t

9 Congruences Congruence The notion of congruence allows one to treat remainders in a systematic manner. For each positive integer greater than 1 there is an arithmetic mod n that mirrors ordinary arithmetic, but is finite, since it involves only the remainders 0, 1,..., n 1 occuring on division by n. Definition Integers a and b are said to be congruent mod n, written a b mod n, if n divides a b. Note, a 1 mod 10 says that the last digit of a is 1.

10 Congruences Basic Rules a a mod n If a b mod n, then b a mod n. If a b mod n and b c mod n, then a c mod n. If a b mod n and c d mod n, then a + c b + d mod n and ac bd mod n. If a b mod n, then a k b k mod n.

11 Congruences Lemma Suppose ac bc mod n. Then a b mod Corollary Suppose gcd(c, n) = 1. Then a c b c a b mod n. n gcd(c,n). mod n implies Suppose p is a prime number. If c is not a multiple of p, then Then a c b c mod p implies a b mod p.

12 Congruences Linear congruences The equation ax b mod n has a solution if and only if d divides b, where d is the gcd(a, n). If d divides b, then it has d mutually incongruent solutions modulo n: x 0, x 0 + n d, x 0 + 2n d,..., x 0 + (d 1)n d. Consequence Suppose gcd(a, n) = 1. Then ax b mod n has a unique solution. Idea The linear congruence is equivalent to the linear Diophantine equation ax ny = b.

13 Chinese Remainder Theorem Chinese Remainder Theorem Let n 1, n 2 and n 3 be integers with gcd(n 1, n 2 ) = gcd(n 1, n 2 ) = gcd(n 2, n 3 ) = 1. Suppose a 1, a 2 and a 3 are integers. Then the simultaneous congruences x a 1 mod n 1 and x a 2 mod n 2 and x a 3 mod n 3 has exactly one solution x with 0 x < n 1 n 2 n 3. Form n = n 1 n 2 n 3 and N 1 = n/n 1 = n 2 n 3, N 2 = n/n 2 = n 1 n 3, N 3 = n/n 3 = n 1 n 2. Then gcd(n k, n k ) = 1 and N k x 1 mod n k has a solution x k. x = a 1 N 1 x 1 + a 2 N 2 x 2 + a 3 N 3 x 3 is a solution to the three linear congruences.

14 Multiplicative inverse Multiplicative inverse in modular arithmetic Find y Z such that ay 1 mod n, i.e. find the multiplicative inverse of a modulo n. Use the Euclidean algorithm to find such an y. Multiply the linear congrunce ax b mod n with the multiplicative inverse y. Then yax yb mod n, which yields x yb mod n.

15 Multiplicative inverse Inverses modulo p Suppose gcd(a, p) = 1. Then ax 1 mod p has a unique solution a 1, the inverse of a modulo p. Formula for inverses modulo p Suppose a 0 mod p. Then a p 1 = a p 2 a 1 mod p, in other words a p 2 is the inverse of a modulo p.

16 Wilson s Theorem Wilson s Theorem The congruence (n 1)! 1 mod n holds if and only if n is a prime number. Remark G.W. Leibniz seems to have known the result prior to Wilson. J. Lagrange gave the first rigorous proof using his theorem on solutions of polynomial congruences, a result we are going to prove later in the course.

17 Arithmetic Functions In this chapter we are discuss arithemtic functions. Definition A function f mapping a set of natural numbers to integers is an arithmetic function. An arithmetic function f is called multiplicative if Examples f (mn) = f (m)f (n) for gcd(m, n) = 1. τ(n) denotes the number of divisors of a natural number n. σ(n) denotes the sum of divisors of a natural number n. Euler s ϕ-function ϕ(n) denotes the number of integers a relatively prime to n with 1 a n. Möbius function µ(n).

18 Arithmetic Functions Crucial Notion Euler s ϕ-function ϕ(n) denotes the number of integers a relatively prime to n with 1 a n. Any such a has a multiplicative inverse modulo n. Facts ϕ is multiplicative, i.e. if gcd(m, n) = 1, then ϕ(m n) = ϕ(m) ϕ(n). If p 1,..., p r are the distinct primes dividing n, then ϕ(n) = n (1 1 ) (1 1 ). p 1 p r

19 Arithmetic Functions Euler Suppose gcd(a, n) = 1. Then a ϕ(n) 1 mod n. Gauss n = ϕ(d) = ϕ( n d ) d n d n

20 Arithmetic Functions Möbius function µ(1) = 1 µ(p 1 p r ) = ( 1) r µ(n) = 0 if p 2 n for some prime number p. Lemma The Möbius function µ is multiplicative and it satisfies µ(1) = 1 and d n µ(d) = 0 for all n > 1.

21 Arithmetic Functions The theory of multiplicative function relies largely on the prime factorization of a natural number. Lemma The divisors of n = p k 1 1 pkr r are the numbers d = p a 1 1 par r for 0 a i k i for all i = 1,..., r. Theorem For n = p k 1 1 pkr r τ(n) = (k 1 + 1) (k r + 1) σ(n) = pk p 1 1 pkr +1 r 1 p r 1 τ and σ are multiplicative. τ and σ are determined by τ(p k ) and σ(p k ).

22 Arithmetic Functions Lemma Suppose f is a multiplicative arithmetic function. Then f (1) = 1 follows from f (1 n) = f (1)f (n). A multiplicative arithmetic function f is determined by f (p k ). Suppose f and g are arithmetic multiplicative functions. Then f g is an arithmetic multiplicative function. In the case that g(n) 0 then f /g is an arithmetic multiplicative function.

23 Arithmetic Functions Sum function F (n) = d n f (d) f is multiplicative if and only if the sum function F is multiplicative. For a multiplicative function f we have that F (n) = Π r i=1(1 + f (p i ) + f (p 2 i ) + + f (p kr r )). Möbius Inversion Formula Suppose F (n) = d n f (d). Then f (n) = d n µ( n )F (d). d

24 Public-key Cryptography and RSA-algorithm RSA algorithm Fundamental Idea: Construction of a One-Way Function on a set X. This is an invertible function E : X X such that it is easy for Alice to compute E 1, but extremely difficult for anybody else to do so. Rivset, Shamir and Adleman used modular arithmetic to design such a one-way function. Alice picks two large prime numbers p and q, and computes n = pq Alice computes ϕ(n) = (p 1)(q 1).

25 Public-key Cryptography and RSA-algorithm RSA algorithm Alice chooses a random integer e with 1 < e < ϕ(n) and gcd(e, ϕ(n)) = 1 Alice finds a solution x = d to xe 1 mod ϕ(n) Alice defines the function E(x) = x e mod n. Anybody can compute E quickly. The pair (n, e) is the public key of Alice. But Alice is the only one, who knows d, which allows her to compute E 1.

26 Public-key Cryptography and RSA-algorithm Decryption Key Let n = pq and let d, e be such that (p 1) (de 1) and (q 1) (de 1). Then a de a mod n for all integers a. Proof: Since n a de a if and only if p and q divide a de a. Now for gcd(a, p) = 1 we have that a p 1 1 mod p, since (p 1) (de 1) and the same for q, we have that a de 1 1 mod p. Thus to decrypt a message m Alice computes E(m) d = (m e ) d = m

27 Order of an integer and primitive roots Order of an integer and primitive roots Suppose a is relatively prime to n. The order of a modulo n is the least integer k such that a k 1 mod n. a is called a primitive root of n if the order of k equals ϕ(n). If a has order k modulo n, then a, a 2,..., a k are all distinct modulo n. If n has a primitive root, then it has ϕ(ϕ(n)) primitive roots. If p is a prime number, then p has ϕ(p 1) incongruent primitive roots. If d ϕ(p) = p 1, then there are ϕ(d) elements of order d.

28 Order of an integer and primitive roots Existence of primitive roots Every prime p has primitive root. If p is an odd prime, then p k has a primitive root for k 2. Gauss: A positive integer has a primitive root if and only if n = 2, 4, p k, 2p k for an odd prime p. Index of an integer Suppose r is a primitive root of n and gcd(a, n) = 1. Then the least positive integer k such that a r k mod n is called the index of a, and denoted by ind r a.

29 Order of an integer and primitive roots Index of an integer ind r a ind r b mod ϕ(n). ind r (ab) = ind r a + ind r b ind r a k = k ind r a Index of an integer x k a mod n has a solution if and only if k ind r a = ind r a mod ϕ(n) has a solution.

30 Quadratic reciprocity Quadratic residue Example Let p be an odd prime and gcd(a, p) = 1. Then a is a quadratic residue of p if a is a solution of x 2 a mod p. If a does not sovle x 2 a mod p, then a is called a quadratic non-residue of p. ( ) Legendre symbol: a p = +1 if a is a quadratic residue ( ) and a p = 1 otherwise. Quadratic residues of 5: 1, 4 and quadratic non-residues of 5: 2, 3 Quadratic residues of 7: 1, 2, 4 and 3, 5, 6 are not.

31 Quadratic reciprocity Basic facts Let p be an odd prime and gcd(a, p) = 1. If x 0 is a solution of x 2 a mod p, then p x 0 is another solution of the congruence. By Lagrange s theorem on polynomial congruences these are all solutions. Suppose a b mod p. Then a is a quadratic residue if and only if b is a quadratic residue. Therefore, we can restrict our discussion of quadratic residues to the integers between 1 and p. There are (p 1)/2 quadratic residues and (p 1)/2 quadratic non-residues of p.

32 Quadratic reciprocity Basic facts Let p be an odd prime. Suppose a and b are integers such that gcd(a, p) = gcd(b, p) = 1. ( ab p ) = ( a p ) ( ) b. p Euler s criterion ( ) a = a (p 1)/2 mod p. p

33 Quadratic reciprocity Quadratic Reciprocity Gauss (1796) Suppose p and q are distinct prime numbers. ( ) ( ) q p = p q if one of the primes is of the form 4k + 1. ( ) ( ) q p = p q if BOTH primes are of the form 4k + 3. Quadratic Reciprocity Gauss (1796) Suppose p and q are distinct prime numbers. Then ( ) ( ) q = ( 1) p 1 q 1 p 2 2 p q

34 Quadratic reciprocity Quadratic Reciprocity Supplement 1 Suppose p is an odd prime number. ( ) 1 p = 1 mod p for p 1 mod 4. ) = 1 mod p for p 3 mod 4. ( 1 p Quadratic Reciprocity Supplement 2 ( 2 p ) = 1 for p = 1 or 7 mod 8. ( 2 p ) = 1 for p = 3 or 5 mod 8.

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