MILESTONES Let there be light

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1 MILESTONES Let there be light

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24 LETTER The conservation of photons Gilbert N. Lewis Nature 118, (1926); doi: /118874a0 WHATEVER view is held regarding the nature of light, it must now be admitted that the process whereby an atom loses radiant energy, and another near or distant atom receives the same energy, is characterised by a remarkable abruptness and singleness. We are reminded of the process in which a molecule loses or gains a whole atom or a whole electron but never a fraction of one or the other. When the genius of Planck brought him to the first formulation of the quantum theory, a new kind of atomicity was suggested, and thus Einstein was led to the idea of light quanta which has proved so fertile. Indeed, we now have ample evidence that radiant energy (at least in the case of high frequencies) may be regarded as travelling in discrete units, each of which passes over a definite path in accordance with mechanical laws.

25 News A new microscopic principle D. Gabor Nature 161, (1948); doi: /161777a0 IT is known that the spherical aberration of electron lenses sets a limit to the resolving power of electron microscopes at about 5 A. Suggestions for the correction of objectives have been made ; but these are difficult in themselves, and the prospects of improvement are further aggravated by the fact that the resolution limit is proportional to the fourth root of the spherical aberration. Thus an improvement of the resolution by one decimal would require a correction of the objective to four decimals, a practically hopeless task.

26 Article Correlation between photons in two coherent beams of light R. Hanbury Brown & R. Q. Twiss Nature 177, (1956); doi: /177027a0

27 Letter Stimulated optical radiation in ruby T. H. Maiman Nature 187, (1960); doi: /187493a0 Schawlow and Townes have proposed a technique for the generation of very monochromatic radiation in the infra-red optical region of the spectrum using an alkali vapour as the active medium. Javan and Sanders have discussed proposals involving electron-excited gaseous systems. In this laboratory an optical pumping technique has been successfully applied to a fluorescent solid resulting in the attainment of negative temperatures and stimulated optical emission at a wavelength of 6943 Å. ; the active material used was ruby (chromium 铬 in corundum 刚玉 ).

28 Letter A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO 2 films Brian O'Regan & Michael Grätzel Nature 353, (1991); doi: /353737a0 THE large-scale use of photovoltaic devices for electricity generation is prohibitively expensive at present: generation from existing commercial devices costs about ten times more than conventional methods. Here we describe a photovoltaic cell, created from low-to medium-purity materials through low-cost processes, which exhibits a commercially realistic energy-conversion efficiency. The device is based on a 10-µmthick, optically transparent film of titanium dioxide particles a few nanometres in size, coated with a monolayer of a charge-transfer dye to sensitize the film for light harvesting. Because of the high surface area of the semiconductor film and the ideal spectral characteristics of the dye, the device harvests a high proportion of the incident solar energy flux (46%) and shows exceptionally high efficiencies for the conversion of incident photons to electrical current (more than 80%). The overall lightto-electric energy conversion yield is % in simulated solar light and 12% in diffuse daylight. The large current densities (greater than 12 ma cm -2 ) and exceptional stability (sustaining at least five million turnovers without decomposition), as well as the low cost, make practical applications feasible.

29 Article Experimental quantum teleportation Dik Bouwmeester, Jian-Wei Pan, Klaus Mattle, Manfred Eibl, Harald Weinfurter & Anton Zeilinger Nature 390, (1997); doi: /37539 Quantum teleportation the transmission and reconstruction over arbitrary distances of the state of a quantum system is demonstrated experimentally. During teleportation, an initial photon which carries the polarization that is to be transferred and one of a pair of entangled photons are subjected to a measurement such that the second photon of the entangled pair acquires the polarization of the initial photon. This latter photon can be arbitrarily far away from the initial one. Quantum teleportation will be a critical ingredient for quantum computation networks.

30 Letter Extraordinary optical transmission through sub-wavelength hole arrays T. W. Ebbesen, H. J. Lezec, H. F. Ghaemi, T. Thio & P. A. Wolff Nature 391, (1998); doi: /35570 The desire to use and control photons in a manner analogous to the control of electrons in solids has inspired great interest in such topics as the localization of light, microcavity quantum electrodynamics and near-field optics. A fundamental constraint in manipulating light is the extremely low transmittivity of apertures smaller than the wavelength of the incident photon. While exploring the optical properties of submicrometre cylindrical cavities in metallic films, we have found that arrays of such holes display highly unusual zero-order transmission spectra (where the incident and detected light are collinear) at wavelengths larger than the array period, beyond which no diffraction occurs. In particular, sharp peaks in transmission are observed at wavelengths as large as ten times the diameter of the cylinders. At these maxima the transmission efficiency can exceed unity (when normalized to the area of the holes), which is orders of magnitude greater than predicted by standard aperture theory. Our experiments provide evidence that these unusual optical properties are due to the coupling of light with plasmons electronic excitations on the surface of the periodically patterned metal film. Measurements of transmission as a function of the incident light angle result in a photonic band diagram. These findings may find application in novel photonic devices.

31 Review Attosecond science Corkum, P. B. & Krausz, F. Nature Phys. 3, (2007); doi: /nphys620 The motion of electrons on the atomic scale has been hidden from direct experimental access until recently. We review the revolution in technology that opened the door to real-time observation and time-domain control of atomic-scale electron dynamics, and address the expected implications of having the tools to monitor electrons with sub-atomic resolution in both space and time. From 1964, when mode-locking was discovered, until 2001, when the first sub-femtosecond (that is, attosecond) pulses were produced, laser pulse durations decreased by about three orders of magnitude. Advances came through constantly refining known concepts of dispersion control and Kerr nonlinearities, aided by improved laser materials. Although a laser scientist from 1965 would have been amazed that pulses of 5 fs (two periods) could be produced, he or she would have been very familiar with all of the principles used.

32 A splendid light has drawn upon me about the absorption and emission of radiation -Einstein, in a letter to Michael Besso, 1916 激光 (LASER) Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation 原子 分子与固体的能级结构 受激辐射与光放大 激光系统 激光应用 In 1958 Arthur Schawlow, together with Charles Townes, demonstrated a method for extending the principle of the maser to the optical region of the spectrum. Schawlow shared the 1981 Nobel Price with Nicolas Bloembergen. Theodore Maiman achieved the first successful operation of a laser (ruby) in 1960.

33 一 原子 分子与固体的能级结构 : 原子 氢原子电子能级 根据 Bohr 的氢原子模型, 电子的轨道能级是分立的 : n: 主量子数 ; 电离能 :13.6 ev 氢原子电子轨道 -e r +e 电子在轨道之间跃迁所发射的光子能量 : 量子数 (n, l, m /, s, m s ) : Pauli exclusion principle l: 角量子数, 轨道角动量的大小 ; m / : 磁量子数, 轨道角动量的空间取向 ; 无外加电 磁场时, 轨道能量与 l m / 无关 s: 自旋大小,1/2; m s : 自旋量子数, 自旋 1/2 的空间取向 Electron configuration: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 玻尔

34 一 原子 分子与固体的能级结构 : 分子 双原子分子的振动 - 旋转能级 通过 Hooke 定律弹簧连接的两个原子组成的分子结构, 分子可以振动, 也可关于质量中心 (Center of Mass) 进行转动 振动能级量子化 (ν): 转动能级量子化 (J): 振动 转动能级和 : 振动能级间距为转动能级间距的 500 倍以上 ; 允许的能级跃迁,J 的变化只能是 ±1; P-branch: R-branch: E v+1,j E v,j-1

35 一 原子 分子与固体的能级结构 : 离子 铥镱铒

36 一 原子 分子与固体的能级结构 : 固体 固体能带结构 绝缘体 半导体和金属的能带结构 本征 n 型与 p 型半导体 :Si Louis de Broglie 的物质波假设 Schrodinger s 方程整个晶体中的周期 electric potential valence band and conduction band 价带电子参与固体的成键结构导带电子可以在固体中自由移动 electrons and holes band edge and band gap (E g ) 本征半导体 :Si 外原子层有 2 个价电子 ; n 型半导体 : 施主杂质磷外层有 3 个价电子 ; p 型半导体 : 受主杂质硼外层有 1 个价电子

37 一 原子 分子与固体的能级结构 : 固体 半导体器件 p-n 结由 p 型与 n 型半导体接触而成 (a) n 型半导体中的施主电子向 p 型半导体移动, 产生的电场 E d 足够大时电子扩散停止, 在平衡状态下形成耗尽层 (depletion layer) (b,c,d) 由于二极管结构的形成, 施加正向电压时, 电场 E 0 可以抵消内置的 E d 电场, 形成电流 施加反向电压时, 耗尽层厚度增加, 阻碍了电流的形成 Photoconductor 本征半导体材料当入射光子能量大于 E g 时, 产生电子 - 空穴对, 在外加电压下产生光电流

38 二 受激辐射与光放大 : 四个过程 Stimulated emission and light amplification 光与原子作用的四个过程 (a) Absorption 吸收 ;(b) Spontaneous Emission 自发辐射 ; (c) Stimulated Emission 受激辐射 ;(d) Light Amplification 光放大 受激辐射中, 诱导发射的光子与入射光子在频率 相位 偏振和传播方向上完全相同

39 二 受激辐射与光放大 : 荧光寿命 Quantum mechanics can be applied to give probabilities for the most probable spontaneous lifetime of the excited state, which can also be measured! Stop 单光子发射测量 : Anti-bunching 反聚束效应 Start 单个 CdSe 量子点 - 人工原子的单光子发射测量 ; 自发辐射荧光寿命可以采用单指数拟合获得 ~20 纳秒 ; Anti-buching 曲线测量的解释?

40 二 受激辐射与光放大 : 辐射的量子理论 光子能量 hf = E 2 -E 1, 腔中光子能量密度 u(f) = E 2 N 2 腔中 N 个原子, 上能级为 E 2, 下能级为 E 1 E 1 黑体辐射 N 1 Einstein 的 A 和 B 系数 吸收光子可能性 :B 12 u(f) 受激发射光子可能性 :B 21 u(f) 自发发射光子可能性 :A 21 N 1 原子在能级 E 1,N 2 原子在能级 E 2, 光子发射与吸收速率为 热平衡条件下,R 21 = R 12, 因此 另外热平衡条件下, 根据 Maxwell-Boltzmann 分布,E i = E 2 或 E 1 得到, 进一步得到, 其中假设 B 21 = B 12 与黑体辐射 Planck 定律比较得出 Thanks to Charles Towns! Max Karl Ernest Ludwig Planck: German Physicist and winner of the 1918 Novel Prize.

41 三 激光系统 : 激光器的组成 光子数变化为 : 泵浦源 抽运源 : Something to create the population inversion 增益介质 : Something to amplify the light 谐振腔 : Something to provide suitable feedback 即 其中 G 为增益,m -1

42 三 激光系统 : 氦 - 氖激光器 ( 原子 ) 激光器主要结构工作介质 : 低压 He Ne 混合气体泵浦源 : 电极放电过程能量转移 :He Ne 较低的量子效率 : Quantum Efficiency 发光波长 :632.8 nm, 3.39 μm, 1.15 μm, 594 nm, 612 nm, nm He-Ne 激光器的能级与结构示意图

43 Förster Resonant Energy Transfer (FRET) Donor: a single CdSe NC; Acceptor: several dye molecules

44 Space-Seperated Quantum Cutting

45 三 激光系统 : 二氧化碳激光器 ( 分子 ) 激光器主要结构工作介质 :10% CO 2, 10% N 2, 80% He 泵浦源 : 电子放电过程, 水冷 : 转移碰撞能量能量转移 :N 2 CO 2 较高的量子效率 : Harmonic Oscillator CO 2 : Triatomic, 复杂光谱,3 组振动能级 He 光谱轮廓来源 1 R-branch 能量高,P-branch 能量低 ; 2 每个转动能级 2J+1 兼并 ; 3 能级之间热 Boltzmann 分布 CO 2 激光器的能级与结构示意图

46 三 激光系统 : 固体激光器 红宝石激光器能级示意图 激光器主要结构工作介质 : 掺铬氧化铝,Ruby, 红宝石 ; 泵浦源 : 闪光灯 ; 能级结构 : 三能级, 脉冲输出为主 ; 光谱特点 : 较宽, 需额外选择机制 ; 世界上第一台激光器 红宝石激光器结构示意图

47 三 激光系统 : 其它激光器 固体激光器 : 红宝石,Nd:YAG,Nd:YVO4, 掺钛蓝宝石 (Ti:Sapphire); 气体激光器 : CO 2,He-Ne,He-Cd( 镉 ),Ar +,Kr + ( 氪 ), Cu 蒸气 ; 液体激光器 : 也称染料激光器, 因为这类激光器的激活物质是某些有机染料溶解在乙醇 甲醇或水等液体中形成的溶液 ; 半导体激光器 : 用半导体材料作为工作物质的一类激光器, 常用材料有砷化镓 (GaAs) 硫化镉(CdS) 磷化铟 (InP) 硫化锌 (ZnS) 等 ; 非线性光学激光器 : 通过倍频 光参量振荡等非线性光学过程在晶体中产生新的激光波长 半导体二极管激光器 二极管激光器泵浦的固体激光器

48 三 激光系统 : 其它激光器 固态激光器 光纤激光器 气体激光器 半导体激光器 2016/9/25 48

49 三 激光系统 : 实物激光器 Verdi 18:18 W, 连续,532 nm Mira-HP:3.8 W, 飞秒 / 皮秒,76 MHz, nm Pulse Picker 9200:9.5 KHz-4.75 MHz Fan OPO: 500 mw, 飞秒 / 皮秒, nm Harmonic Generator: 飞秒 / 皮秒, nm, nm

50 Milestones Nat. Photonics 4, 281 (2010)

51 Commercially available lasers

52 激光特性 : 高强度 高亮度 一台普通的红宝石激光器发出激光亮度, 比太阳亮度高 8 个数量级 ( 几千万倍 ) 连续发光激光器功率 : 目前可达几千瓦 几万瓦 脉冲激光器 : 目前可达几千焦耳, 几万焦耳 时间 空间都得到压缩的激光, 其功率密度比会聚的太阳光高几十亿倍! 由于能量高度集中, 很轻易在某一微小点处产生高压和几万摄氏度甚至几百万摄氏度高温

53 激光特性 : 方向性 方向性 : 普通光向四面八方辐射, 而激光基本沿直线传播, 光束的发散角很小 光束发散角 =2 α r s α 探照灯 :35 毫弧度 -1 度 激光 :10-2 毫弧度 若将激光射向几千米外, 光束直径仅扩展几厘米, 而普通探照灯扩展达几十米

54 激光特性 : 单色性 单色性 : 指光强按频率 ( 波长 ) 的分布状况, 激光的频谱 ( 波谱 ) 宽度非常窄

55 激光特性 : 相干性 相干性 : 空间任意两点光振动之间相互关联的程度 时间相干性和空间相干性 由于激光器是通过受激辐射发光的, 所以具有很好的相干性 利用激光光源进行有关的光学实验具有独特的优点

56 相干性 : 时间相干性与空间相干性 双缝干涉实验 迈克尔逊干涉仪 相干长度 : 单色性越好, 相干长度越长 普通光源 : 几厘米 ; 激光可达 :10 5 千米 相干时间 = 相干长度 /C

57 四 激光应用 :3D 显示 3D 影像成像原理 3D 液晶显示器有望占领高端游戏市场

58 四 激光应用 : 投影仪 采用二极管泵浦的固体激光器, 倍频输出红绿蓝三基色的激光全色显示具有色彩十分丰富多彩, 亮度高 清晰度高等优点 预计未来 10 年内在计算机投影仪 大屏幕高清晰显示和数字电视方面会得到广泛应用 DLP Projection TV

59 四 激光应用 : 物理 化学 生物领域 化学分子在飞秒激光作用下的分离过程

60 四 激光应用 : 医学 所用波长覆盖从紫外 可见光 红外的全部波段 1-3, 切削角膜 ;4, 掀起皮瓣 ;5-6, 激光烧灼 ;7-8, 皮瓣盖回 LASIK 手术, 全称是 准分子激光原位角膜磨镶术 (laser in situ keratomileusis, LASIK)

61 四 激光应用 : 显示 在北京中轴线上观看永定门城楼被变换的激光包围 由五彩激光灯束组成的图案交替在北京永定门城楼上变换

The dynamic N1-methyladenosine methylome in eukaryotic messenger RNA 报告人 : 沈胤

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