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1 INFORMATION TO USERS This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1.T he sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Paga(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page{s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again beginning below the first raw and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. University Microfilms International 300 North Z eeb Road Ann Arbor. Michigan USA St John's Road, Tyler's Green High Wycombe. Bucks. England HF10 8HR

2 I 78-12,353 KNIGHT, Linda Smith, SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPING WHERE BEHAVIORAL INFORMAT I CM IS OOMUNICATED BY VIDEOTAPE OR WRITTEN NARRATIVE. The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1978 Psychology, social University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor Michigan 48106

3 SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPING WHERE BEHAVIORAL INFORMATION IS COMMUNICATED BY VIDEOTAPE OR WRITTEN NARRATIVE DISSERTATION P r e se n te d in P a r t ia l F u lf illm e n t o f th e R equirem ents f o r th e D egree o f D octor o f P h ilo so p h y in th e G raduate S ch o o l o f The Ohio S ta t e U n iv e r s it y by Linda Sm ith K night * * * * The Ohio S ta t e U n iv e r s ity 1978 R eading Comm ittee Jean D. D ic k e r sc h e id George Sm ith C la r ib e l T a y lo r Approved by jt/ijnj Ai )jj>lt.}<*jisd. A d v iser Departm ent o f F am ily R e la tio n s and Huran D evelopm ent S ch o o l o f Home Econom ics

4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I w ish to e x te n d than ks to th e many p e o p le g iv in g acad em ic, p r a c t i c a l, and m oral su p p o rt d u rin g th e d u r a tio n o f t h i s r e s e a r c h e f f o r t. Dr. Jean D ic k e r s c h e id se r v e d as my d i s s e r t a t i o n a d v is e r and p r o v id e d p r o f e s s io n a l g u id a n ce a s w e ll as p e r s o n a l f r ie n d s h ip. Dr. C la r ib e l Tayor and Dr. G eorge Sm ith se r v e d a s re a d e r s o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n and gave many u s e f u l s u g g e s t i o n s. I a ls o w ish t o thank Dr. E lle n Hock f o r h er g u id a n ce d u rin g my academ ic s t u d ie s and r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t s h i p. The c o o p e r a tio n o f many in d iv id u a ls w ere c r u c ia l to th e im p lem en ta tio n o f t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t. Dr. Thomas R ock w ell p r o v id e d v id e o ta p e equipm ent and a room i n w hich to w ork. F a c u lty and s t a f f a t M isso u r i U n iv e r s it y, Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s it y, and O tte r b e in C o lle g e w ere in v a lu a b le in p r o v id in g a c c e s s t o equipm ent and s t u d e n t s. Dr. Barbara S o b ie s z e k s u p p lie d th e v id e o ta p e s u sed i n t h i s r e s e a r c h a s w e ll as th e c o n c e p tu a l fram ew ork. A s p e c i a l th an k s i s g iv e n to a l l th o s e s tu d e n ts and day c a r e w orkers who gave o f t h e i r tim e and o p in io n s w h ile p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h i s e x p e r im e n t.

5 I e x te n d to my f r ie n d s th an k s f o r a l l th e h e lp and t o le r a n c e. Thanks C h r is, A l, K a th ie, J a ck, B a d ie, S te v e J o e, and Tom. To my p a r e n ts and p a r e n t s - in - la w I w ish to e x p r e s s much lo v e and thanks f o r th e m oral and p ra g m a tic su p p o rt To Jim, my husband, I thank f o r th e e x p e r ie n c e s we have sh a r e d.

6 VITA March 2 3, 1 9 ^ 7...Born - M a n s fie ld, Ohio B a ch elo r o f S c ie n c e, The Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s it y, S ch o o l o f Home E conom ics, D iv is io n o f F am ily and C h ild D evelopm ent, Columbus, Ohio G ranted fo u r y e a r Ph.D. f e llo w s h ip by The Ohio S t a t e U n iv e r s it y G raduate S c h o o l, Columbus, Ohio 197^ R esearch A s s o c ia t e, S c h o o l o f Home Econom ics and The Ohio R esearch and D evelopm ent C en ter, Columbus, Ohio Chosen f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Summer I n s t i t u t e, " E v o lu tio n and th e D evelopm ent o f B ehavior" U n iv e r s it y o f M in n eso ta, June 23- J u ly 2 5 M in n e a p o lis, M in n esota FIELDS OF STUDY M ajor F ie ld : F am ily R e la tio n s and Human D evelopm ent Home Econom ics Dr. Jean D. D ic k e r s c h e id Dr. E lle n R. Hock S tu d ie s i n S ystem s C oncepts and R esearch D esig n Dr. R ich ard A. M ille r Dr. George L. Sm ith S tu d ie s i n D evelop m en tal P sy ch o lo g y Dr. P h i l i p M. C lark

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS... Page i i V I T A i i i LIST OF T A B L E S... v i i i LIST OF FIG URES... x C hapter I. INTRODUCTION... 1 Background... 1 S ta tem en t o f th e P r o b l e m... 3 R esearch O b je c tiv e s... 4 R esearch H y p o t h e s e s D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms... 5 L im it a t io n s o f th e S t u d y... 6 Summary o f th e S t u d y... 6 I I. REVIEW OF LITERATURE... 9 D evelopm ent o f In str u m e n ta l and E x p r e s s iv e C om p eten cies i n I n d iv id u a ls G e n e tic B a s is E n viron m en tal and I n t e r a c t io n a l B ases S ex -R o le S te r e o ty p in g as I t I n f lu e n c e s th e D evelopm ent o f Competence S te r e o t y p in g D e fin ed R eal S e x - D if f e r e n c e s v s S ex -R o le S te r e o t y p in g o f C h ild r e n 's B eh avior The E f f e c t o f S ex -R o le S te r e o ty p in g on C h ild r e n 's B eh a v io r... 1? O b server S e x -R o le B ia s S ex -R o le S te r e o ty p in g When R eading a W ritten A ccount o f B e h a v i o r S ex -R o le S te r e o ty p in g Under C o n d itio n s Where B e h a v io r a l In fo r m a tio n i s T ra n sm itted by Audio a n d /o r V is u a l M e a n s v

8 Chapter Page F a c to r s to be C o n sid ered i n th e E xp erim en tal S i t u a t i o n > 29 C o n tro l Groups Sex o f O b s e r v e r O b serv ers' P r e v io u s O b ser v a tio n E x p erien ce. 31 In fo r m a tio n P ro v id ed to O bserver Com m unication o f B e h a v io r a l In fo r m a tio n to O b s e r v e r s... Summary I I I. METHODOLOGY The S a m p l e In s tr u m e n ta tio n The E x p erim en ta l V a r ia b le s The D ependent V a r i a b l e P r o c e d u r e s D ata A n a l y s i s IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION D e s c r ip t io n o f th e S a m p l e I n i t i a l D ata T r a n sfo rm a tio n D if fe r e n c e S co re C a lc u la t io n U sin g A verage o f Male Item s and A verage o f Fem ale Item s. 5 D if fe r e n c e S co re C a lc u la t io n s U sin g MAS... 6l S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly se s R e la te d to H yp oth eses.. 63 A n a ly s is o f A verage M ale Item and A verage Fem ale Item D if fe r e n c e S c o r e s A n a ly s is o f MAS D if fe r e n c e S c o r e s V. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS APPENDICES S u m m a r y I m p lic a t io n s... Recommendations f o r F utu re R esearch A W ritten N a r r a tiv e o f Baby A W ritten N a r r a tiv e o f Baby B T able 8 --F re q u en cy o f R esp on ses to Q u estio n s R egardin g S ex o f C h ild i n N a r r a tiv e s and C la r i t y o f N a r r a t i v e s vi

9 APPENDICES Page B C h ild B ehavior Words C h e c k lis t Table 9 --P e r c e n t and Number o f S u b je c ts ' A p p lic a b ilit y and Sex A ssignm ent R esponses to C h ild B ehavior S tim u lu s W o r d s Table 10--P e r c e n t and Number o f S u b je c ts ' Male or Female R esponses to C h ild B ehavior S tim u lu s Words Chosen to Appear on C h ild B ehavior R ating S c a l e...10^ C C h ild B ehavior R ating S c a le D C onsent F o r m E F G H E x p la n a tio n o f the Experim ent Purpose and S e t t in g G iven to P o t e n t ia l S u b je c ts P roced ures F ollow ed in th e R esearch Experim ent f o r th e V id eotape and W ritten N a rra tiv e T ransm is s io n C o n d i t i o n s Table ll- - D e s c r ip t io n o f Groups' Treatm ent C o n d itio n s Showing S ex-l ab el W ithin the M atrix x Order o f P r e s e n ta tio n x C hild A or B x Communication Mode A pproval Form Human S u b je c t Review Committee BIBLIOGRAPHY vii

10 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Number and P ercen t o f S ix ty -F o u r R aters in D e s c r ip tiv e C h a r a c te r is tic C a te g o r ie s A n a ly sis o f V ariance Summary Table fo r E f f e c t o f Sex L abel and Communication Mode C o n d itio n s on R ater D iffe r e n c e S co res f o r th e Average o f Male Item s Minus the Average o f Female Item s W ithin the C hild B ehavior R atin g S c a l e Mean* Standard D e v ia tio n, Standard Error o f Mean o f R ater D iffe r e n c e S co res f o r the A verage o f Male Item s Minus the Average o f Female Item s W ithin th e C h ild B ehavior R a tin g S c a le by Sex L a b el, Communication Mode, Sex L abel x Communication M o d e Mean, Standard D e v ia tio n, Standard Error o f Kean f o r R a tin g s. o f the Average o f Male Item s and th e Average o f Female Item s W ithin the C h ild B ehavior R ating S c a le by Sex Label and Communication M o d e A n a ly sis o f V ariance Summary Table fo r E f f e c t o f Sex L abel and Communication Mode on R ater D iffe r e n c e S co res D erived From MAS Mean, Standard D e v ia tio n, Standard E rror o f Mean o f R ater D iffe r e n c e S co res D erived From MAS by Sex L ab el, Communication Mode, Sex Label x Communication Mode * Mean, Standard D e v ia tio n, Standard Error o f Mean o f R ater MAS by Sex Label and Communication M o d e Frequency o f R esponses to Q u estio n s R egarding Sex o f C h ild in N a r r a tiv e s and C la r ity o f N a r r a t i v e s...94 viii

11 Table Page 9 P e r c e n t and Number o f S u b je c ts* A p p l i c a b i l i t y and Sex A ssign m en t R esp on ses to C h ild B eh a v io r S tim u lu s W o r d s... ' P e r c e n t and Number o f S u b j e c t s Male or Fem ale R esp on ses to C h ild B eh a v io r S tim u lu s Words Chosen to Appear on C h ild B eh a v io r R atin g S c a l e D e s c r ip t io n o f G roups T reatm ent C o n d itio n s Showing Sex L ab el W ith in th e M atrix x Order o f P r e s e n ta t io n x C h ild A or B x Com m unication M o d e ix

12 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 O v e r a ll D esig n L ayout Show ing E x p e c te d V a lu es o f D ependent M easure (Y..) f o r Each D esig n C e l l P a rt 1: Example o f D if f e r e n c e S c o r e C a lc u la t io n s U sin g A verage Male S co r e and A verage Fem ale S core When S e x -R o le S te r e o ty p in g i s A f f e c t in g S u b je c t s ' R a tin g s P a rt 2: Example o f D if f e r e n c e S c o r e C a lc u la t io n s U sin g A verage M ale S c o r e and A verage Fem ale S core When S e x -R o le S te r e o ty p in g i s A f f e c t in g S u b je c t s ' R a tin g s *4- P a rt 3 1 Example o f D if f e r e n c e S c o r e C a lc u la t io n s U sin g A verage M ale S c o r e and A verage Fem ale S core When S e x -R o le S te r e o ty p in g i s A f f e c t in g S u b je c t s ' R a tin g s P a rt 1: Example o f D if f e r e n c e S c o r e C a lc u la t io n U sin g M a scu lin e A t t r i b u t e S co re When S ex -R o le S t e r e o t y p in g i s A f f e c t in g S u b j e c t s R a tin g s P a rt 2 1 Example o f D if f e r e n c e S c o r e C a lc u la t io n U sin g M a scu lin e A t t r ib u t e S core When S ex -R o le S te r e o t y p in g i s A f f e c t in g S u b je c ts ' R a tin g s S c a t t e r P lo t o f MAS D if f e r e n c e S c o r e s Comparing V id eo ta p e T r a n sm issio n Mode and W ritten N a r r a tiv e T r a n sm issio n Mode f o r A ll S u b je c ts S c a t t e r P lo t o f MAS D if f e r e n c e S c o r e s Comparing Told Sex Group and T old C h ild Group f o r A ll S u b j e c t s x

13 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND The assigning of roles to males and females is a common occurrence in American society. The assignment of instrumental competence to males and expressive competence to females is one example of such sex-role stereotyping (P arsons and B a les 1955)* S te r eo ty p e d assign m en ts assume mutual exclusivity of these two competencies when in fact both are desirable attributes for any human being. Baumrind's definition of instrumental competence embraces the mutual desirability of both competencies. Instrumental competence refers to behavior which is socially responsible, that is, friendly rather than hostile to peers and cooperative rather than resistive to legitimate authority, and independent, that is, achievement-rather than nonachievement-oriented, dominant rather than submissive, resistant of illegitimate authority rather than tractable, and purposive rather than aimless (1972, p. 163) Characteristics related to instrumental and expressive competence do not necessarily materialize in individuals by virtue of chronological maturity but are developed from the interaction of the i n d i v i d u a l s maturity and experience. Research and theory on mother-infant interaction, infant 1

14 2 com petency, and g e n e tic -e n v ir o n m e n t in t e r a c t io n a t t e s t to the im portance o f the developm ent o f such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in the e a r ly y ea rs o f l i f e. A du lts p la y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o le in the c h i l d ' s e a r ly e x p e r ie n c e by p ro v id in g gu idance as to what b eh a v io rs are c o n sid e r ed a p p r o p ria te in th e c u lt u r e. C o n seq u en tly, the p e r c e p tio n s o f and a c tio n s by a d u lts toward c h ild r e n 's b eh a v io rs which a re in d ic a t iv e o f in str u m e n ta l and e x p r e s s iv e co m p eten cies are worthy o f in v e s t ig a t io n. R esearch has been conducted exam ining the s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p in g o f c h ild r e n 's b eh a v io r by te a c h e r s, p a r e n ts, h igh sc h o o l s tu d e n ts, and undergraduate p sy ch o lo g y stu d e n ts to name a few o f the sam ple p o p u la tio n s (Etaugh and Hughes 1975# L e v itin and Chananie 1972, Condry and Condry 1976, Chasen 197^t Broverman e t a l. 1970, Meyer and S o b ie sze k 1972, S c h iffe n b a u e r and Babineau ). One p o p u la tio n m is s in g from th e above l i s t are th o se in d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d in th e r e se a r c h p r o c e s s, f o r exam ple, r e se a r c h a s s i s t a n t s. Maccoby and J a c k lin n ote a con cern in r e l a t i o n to th e re se a r c h p ro cess in the fo llo w in g statem ent* A b a sic problem w ith the r e se a r c h on sex d iff e r e n c e s i s th a t i t i s alm ost alw ays im p o ssib le f o r o b ser v ers to be b lin d to the sex o f the s u b j e c t s. S te r e o ty p e s about what kind o f b eh a v io r i s to be ex p ected from th e two se x e s run v ery deep, and even when se x d iff e r e n c e s are i n c id e n t a l to the main fo cu s o f th e stu d y, the o b ser v e rs must alm ost in e v it a b ly be b ia se d to some e x te n t ( 197^» p. 7 )

15 3 R esearch a s s i s t a n t s who c o l l e c t, r e c o r d, and code th e d ata a re s u b j e c t s w orthy o f u n d e r sta n d in g s in c e t h e i r in p u t i s c r u c ia l to th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d. S e v e r a l q u e s tio n s need to be ask ed in r e l a t i o n to r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t s and t h e i r in f lu e n c e on r e s e a r c h d a ta. F i r s t, i s t h i s groups o f in d i v id u a ls prone to s e x - r o l e s te r e o ty p in g? In a d d it io n, are th e r e c e r t a in c o n d it io n s w it h in th e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n and m eth od ology w hich m it ig a t e or e x a g g e r a te a s t e r e o t y p in g ten d en cy? In o th e r w ord s, i s s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p in g o f b e h a v io r s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f in s tr u m e n ta l and e x p r e s s iv e co m p e te n cie s b e in g p ro p o g a ted by in d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d in the r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The purpose in t h i s stu d y was to exam ine the s e x - r o le s t e r e o t y p in g b e h a v io r o f p o t e n t i a l r e s e a r c h w orkers when r a t in g c h ild r e n ' s b e h a v io r s. The c o n d itio n s under w hich th e r a t in g s were made sim u la te d m e th o d o lo g ic a l a l t e r n a t i v e s a v a ila b le in r e s e a r c h s i t u a t i o n s. The f i r s t m e th o d o lo g ic a l v a r ia b le was th e la b e le d se x o f th e c h i ld to be r a te d. The l a b e l s a p p lie d were b oy, g i r l, or sim p ly c h i l d. The secon d m e th o d o lo g ic a l v a r ia b le was the com m unication mode u sed to tr a n sm it in fo r m a tio n ab out th e c h i l d ' s b e h a v io r to th e r a t e r. V id eo ta p e r e c o r d in g s and w r it t e n n a r r a t iv e s o f th e v id e o ta p e r e c o r d in g s com p rised th e two com m unication modes compared in t h i s stu d y. T h is stu d y c o n t r ib u t e s to th e

16 understanding of sex-role stereotyping within the research s e t t i n g. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e s in t h i s stu d y were* 1. To i n v e s t i g a t e th e e f f e c t t h a t l a b e l i n g a c h i l d s sex h as on a r a t e r ' s s e x - r o l e r e la t e d r a t in g s o f th e c h i l d ' s b e h a v io r. 2. To in v e s t ig a t e th e e f f e c t th e mode o f com m unicating a c h i l d ' s b e h a v io r to a r a t e r has on th e r a t e r ' s s e x - r o le r e la t e d r a t in g s o f th e c h i l d ' s b e h a v io r. 3. To i n v e s t i g a t e th e i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t o f th e sex la b e l a p p lie d to a c h i l d and th e mode o f com m unicating a c h i l d ' s b e h a v io r to a r a t e r on r a t e r ' s s e x - r o le r e la t e d r a t in g s o f a c h i l d ' s b e h a v io r. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES From th e r e s e a r c h o b j e c t iv e s th e f o llo w in g r e s e a r c h h y p o th e se s were d erived * 1. The se x la b e l a p p lie d to a c h ild w i l l have an e f f e c t on r a t e r ' s s e x - r o le r e la t e d r a t in g s o f a c h i l d ' s b e h a v io r where a) th e fem ale la b e le d c h ild w i l l be r a te d h ig h e r on fem a le s te r e o ty p e d a t t r i b u t e s than m ale s te r e o ty p e d a t t r i b u t e s, b) th e m ale la b e le d c h i l d w i l l be r a te d h ig h e r on m ale s te r e o ty p e d a t t r i b u t e s th an fem a le s te r e o ty p e d a t t r i b u t e s, c) th e se x n e u tr a l la b e le d c h i l d w i l l be r a te d e q u a lly on m ale and fem a le s te r e o ty p e d a t t r i b u t e s. 2. The mode o f com m unicating a c h i l d ' s b e h a v io r to a r a t e r w i l l have an e f f e c t on r a t e r s s e x - r o l e r e la t e d r a t in g s o f th e c h i l d ' s b e h a v io r. The w r it t e n n a r r a t iv e c o n d i t i o n w i l l e l i c i t r a t in g s w hich are s i g n i f i c a n t l y more s te r e o ty p e d th an r a t in g s e l i c i t e d in th e v id e o ta p e c o n d it io n.

17 3. The i n t e r a c t i o n o f se x l a b e l a p p lie d to a c h i l d and mode o f com m unicating a c h i l d ' s b e h a v io r to a r a t e r w i l l have an e f f e c t on r a t e r ' s s e x - r o l e r e la t e d r a t in g s o f a c h i l d s b e h a v io r where a g r e a te r d iv e r g e n c o f s e x - r o l e s te r e o ty p e d r a t in g s f o r th e m ale, fe m a le, and n e u tr a l la b e le d c h i l d w i l l o ccu r i n th e w r it t e n n a r r a t iv e as op posed to th e v id e o ta p e com m unication mode. DEFINITION OF TERMS S te r e o ty p in g i s d e fin e d by K is c h e l as h a v in g... e x p e c t a t i o n s ab out th e d i s p o s i t i o n s and t y p i c a l b e h a v io r s su p p o se d ly d is p la y e d by members o f a c a te g o r y ( 1970, p. 6 ). S e x - r o le s t e r e o t y p in g r e l a t e s s p e c i f i c a l l y to th e e x p e c ta t io n about th e d i s p o s i t i o n s and t y p i c a l b e h a v io r s d is p la y e d by m ales and fe m a le s. S e x - r o le s t e r e o t y p in g o f b e h a v io r s i s i d e n t i f i e d in t h i s stu d y by d i f f e r e n t i a l r e sp o n se s g iv e n on The C h ild B eh a v io r R a tin g S c a le. In str u m e n ta l and e x p r e s s iv e c o m p e te n c ie s are t y p i c a l l y s e x - r o le lin k e d w ith th e form er b ein g m ale a s s ig n e d and th e l a t t e r fem a le a s s ig n e d. In str u m e n ta l com petence i s d e fin e d by Baumrind as*... b e h a v io r w hich i s s o c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e, t h a t i s, f r i e n d l y r a th e r than h o s t i l e to p e e r s and c o o p e r a tiv e r a th e r th a n r e s i s t i v e to l e g it i m a t e a u t h o r it y, and in d e p e n d e n t, th a t i s, a ch ie v em en t- r a th e r than n o n a c h ie v e m e n t-o r ie n te d, dom inant r a th e r than s u b m is s iv e, r e s i s t a n t o f i l l e g i t i m a t e a u t h o r it y r a th e r than t r a c t a b le, and p u r p o siv e r a th e r than a im le s s ( 1 972, p. 163). E x p r e s s iv e com petence i s b e h a v io r r e f l e c t i n g f e e l i n g s, good th o u g h ts, "being" and " b elo n g in g ", s p o n t a n e it y, and r e l a t i n g in t i m a t e ly to o th e r s (Baumrind ).

18 Words r e p r e s e n t in g e x p r e s s iv e and in s tr u m e n ta l co m p e te n c ie s appear on The C h ild B eh avior R a tin g S c a le and are as fo llo w s * E x p r e ssiv e words: a f f e c t i o n a t e, e m o tio n a l, cu d d ly, f e e l i n g s e a s i l y h u rt In str u m e n ta l words* i n q u i s i t i v e, a c t i v e, a g g r e s s iv e, a s s e r t i v e, s tr o n g p e r s o n a li t y, a d v en tu ro u s, n o t d ep en d en t. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y o f th e stu d y r e s u l t s e x ten d to fe m a le s who have had a co u rse in c h ild d evelopm en t i n w hich o b s e r v a tio n s k i l l s were ta u g h t and p r a c t ic e d. The s u b j e c t s i n t h i s stu d y were v o lu n t e e r s who a g re ed to g iv e a p p r o x im a tely 30 m in u tes o f t h e i r tim e to r a te two c h i ld r e n ' s b e h a v io r s. These s u b j e c t s were n o t random ly s e l e c t e d. The s u b j e c t s v o lu n t e e r in g to p a r t ic ip a t e i n t h i s stu d y were e n r o lle d i n th r e e u n i v e r s i t i e s. The p o t e n t i a l d if f e r e n c e s i n th e o b s e r v a tio n s k i l l s le a r n e d in th e s e th r e e s e t t i n g s i s r e c o g n iz e d h ere as n o t s ta n d a r d iz e d. SUMMARY OF THE STUDY The purpose i n t h i s stu d y was to s y s t e m a t ic a ll y va ry s e v e r a l m e th o d o lo g ic a l a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a t co u ld p o t e n t i a l l y be em ployed i n a r e s e a r c h stu d y and o b serv e t h e i r e f f e c t on th e s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p in g b e h a v io r s o f a sam ple o f s u b j e c t s who co u ld l i k e l y be o b s e r v e r /d a ta c o l l e c t o r s in v o lv e d in a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t.

19 The s u b j e c t s in t h i s stu d y were 6k v o lu n t e e r s from th r e e 7 u n i v e r s i t y c h i ld d evelopm en t c l a s s e s. The c h i ld developm ent c l a s s e s in c lu d e d among t h e i r o b j e c t iv e s th e d evelopm ent o f o b s e r v a tio n s k i l l s as w e ll as th e d evelopm en t o f s k i l l s in w r it in g o b s e r v a tio n r e p o r t s. By draw ing from t h i s p o p u la tio n, th e r e was s i m i l a r i t y among th e s u b j e c t s in th e s k i l l s l i k e l y to be r e q u ir e d o f a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t w orker. Two v a r i a b le s s t r e s s i n g m eth o d o lo g ica l, q u e s tio n s were o f i n t e r e s t. The f i r s t v a r ia b le r e la t e d to o b se r v e r b ia s toward s e x o f th e o b ser v ed. S p e c i f i c a l l y, when a c h ild was d i f f e r e n t i a l l y la b e le d by s e x t h a t i s, som etim es i d e n t i f i e d as m ale, fe m a le, or sim p ly as a c h ild --w o u ld obs e r v e r s r a t in g s o f s e x - r o l e r e la t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d i f f e r as a f u n c t io n o f th e se x l a b e l a p p lie d? The seco n d v a r i a b le co n cern ed th e method u sed to com m unicate th e b e h a v io r a l in fo r m a tio n to th e o b s e r v e r s. There are a v a r i e t y o f m ethods f o r com m unicating b e h a v io r a l d ata w ith two b ein g v id e o ta p e and w r it t e n n a r r a t iv e. T h is stu d y compared th e v id e o ta p e m ethod w ith a w r it t e n n a r r a t iv e o f th e same v id e o t a p e. S u b je c ts i n d i v i d u a l l y r a te d two c h ild r e n s b eh a v io r u s in g th e C h ild B eh a v io r H atin g S c a le. T h is s c a l e was d ev elo p ed by Meyer and S o b ie s z e k ( ) and was m o d ifie d f o r u se i n t h i s s tu d y. In c lu d ed w it h in th e S c a le were 18 words o f w hich s i x were m ale s e x - r o l e r e la t e d, s i x were fem a le s e x - r o l e r e la t e d, and s i x were r e la t e d to e i t h e r

20 8 m ale or fem a le. Random assign m en t was em ployed to determ ine the sex la b e l and com m unication mode c o n d itio n s to which the s u b je c ts were exp osed. A n a ly sis o f v a r ia n c e was the s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t used to examine s u b j e c ts ' r a tin g s in r e l a t io n to th e h y p o th eses o f the stu d y.

21 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE An exam in ation o f b ia s r e la t e d to s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p in g o f in d iv id u a ls ' b eh a v io r i s f a c i l i t a t e d by an u n d erstan d in g o f th e b eh a v io rs w hich are s te r e o ty p e d. B ehaviors c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f in stru m e n ta l and e x p r e s s iv e com p eten cies were th e fo cu s o f t h i s stu d y. In the f i r s t s e c t io n o f t h i s ch a p te r th eo ry and r e se a r c h s t r e s s in g the im portance o f co m p eten cies in th e developm ent o f an in d iv id u a l's p o t e n t ia l w i l l be review ed r e c o g n iz in g th a t com p eten cies are n ot d eveloped e q u a lly betw een th e s e x e s. The developm ent o f th e in e q u a lit y o f co m p eten cies e a r ly in l i f e w i l l be examined w ith in g e n e t ic, en v iro n m en ta l, and in t e r a c t io n a l fram es of r e fe r e n c e. F o cu sin g on the en viron m en tal in flu e n c e s in the developm ent o f co m p eten cies, th e second s e c t io n o f t h is rev iew w i l l c o n c e n tr a te on the a c t o f s te r e o ty p in g. S te r e o ty p in g w i l l be d efin e d and th en examined in r e la t io n to s te r e o ty p in g o f c h ild r e n 's b e h a v io r s. Because s te r e o ty p in g o f c h ild r e n 's b eh a v io r emerges as a m atter o f con cern, a t t e n t io n w i l l be d ir e c te d to s tu d ie s d esig n ed to i n v e s t i g a te o b serv er b ia s in g en era l and s e x -s te r e o ty p in g in p a r t ic u la r. S e x -s te r e o ty p in g o f b eh a v io rs has been stu d ie d 9

22 10 w ith in and toward d iv e r se p o p u la tio n s o f in d iv id u a ls. Not o n ly have the s u b je c t p o p u la tio n s v a r ie d but a ls o the r e se a r c h p rocedu res employed w ith in the s tu d ie s d isp la y e d a v a r ie t y of te ch n iq u es fo r e l i c i t i n g r e sp o n se s to b eh a v io r. O bserver b ia s and the p rocedures u sed in o b serv er b ia s r e se a r c h w i l l be co n sid er ed in t h i s ch a p te r. The f i n a l s e c t io n o f t h i s rev iew w i l l expand on v a r ia b le s w ith in th e r e se a r c h d e sig n which cou ld in flu e n c e an o b s e r v e r 's s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p in g te n d e n c ie s. DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUMENTAL AND EXPRESSIVE COMPETENCIES IN INDIVIDUALS G en etic B a sis Most in d iv id u a ls b e lie v e th a t ev ery p erson has a r ig h t and sh ou ld be encouraged to d ev elo p t h e ir p o t e n t ia l. In th e t h e o r e t ic a l w r itin g s o f p s y c h o lo g is t s such as Rogers and Maslow, the em phasis i s upon s t r iv i n g to become a f u l l - fu n c tio n in g or s e l f - a c t u a l i z e d p erson. A ccording to th e R ogerian p o s it io n, a c t u a liz in g o n e 's p o t e n t ia l to the f u l l e s t in c lu d e s the fo llo w in g s e l f p e r c e p tio n s i 1 ) r e s p e c t and v a lu e a l l m a n ife s ta tio n s o f y o u r s e lf, 2 ) be co n sc io u s o f v i r t u a l l y a l l th e r e i s to know about y o u r s e lf, 3 ) be f l e x i b l e and open to new ex p er ien ce (Maddi 1968, p. 76). The f u l f i l l m e n t o f p o t e n t ia l through the s e l f p e r c e p tio n s l i s t e d above in v o lv e s n o t o n ly the in d iv id u a l but a ls o th e s o c ie t y in which th a t in d iv id u a l f u n c t io n s.

23 11 A lth ou gh c e r t a in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an in d iv id u a l are g e n e t i c a l l y d eterm in ed, th e s e l f - c o n c e p t i s s o c i a l l y d e term in ed. In o th e r w ords, s o c i e t y can e x e r t th e power to a llo w c e r t a in in d iv id u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to d ev e lo p o r to rem ain l a t e n t by v ir t u e o f c u lt u r a l d e f i n i t i o n. Thus, i t i s c l e a r t h a t a m atch b etw een g e n e t ic p o t e n t i a l and s o c i a l req u irem en t may n o t be p e r f e c t. Among th e c u lt u r a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f a p p r o p r ia te and in a p p r o p r ia te b e h a v io r s i s a d e lin e a t io n a lo n g se x l i n e s. F or exam p le, P a rso n s and B a le s e x p r e s s th e d if f e r e n c e s in m ale and fem ale c o m p e te n c ie s i n term s o f a husband and w ife r e la t i o n s h i p as f o llo w s : C o n sid ered a s a s o c i a l sy stem, th e m arriage r e l a t i o n s h ip i s c l e a r l y a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d sy ste m. The f a c t t h a t se x (a s c a te g o r y ) i s c o n s t i t u t i v e o f i t s u g g e s t s t h a t, o f th e two "primary" a x e s, th e in s t r u m e n t a l- e x p r e s s iv e one h ere ta k e s p reced en ce o v er t h a t o f power. From t h i s p o in t o f v ie w, though th e g e n e r a l f u n c t io n s o f t h i s c o l l e c t i v i t y in th e s u p e r o r d in a te sy stem s are e x p r e s s iv e, th e more in s tr u m e n ta l r o le in th e su b system i s ta k en by th e husband, th e more e x p r e s s iv e one by th e w if e. T h is i s t o sa y th a t e x t e r n a l l y, th e husband has th e prim ary a d a p tiv e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s, r e l a t i v e to th e o u ts id e s i t u a t io n, and th a t i n t e r n a l l y he i s in th e f i r s t i n s ta n c e " g i v e r - o f - c a r e," or p le a s u r e, and se co n d a r i l y th e g iv e r o f l o v e, w hereas th e w ife i s prim a r i l y th e g i v e r o f lo v e and s e c o n d a r ily th e g iv e r o f ca re o r p le a s u r e ( P- 151)* The im p lic a t io n from th e above sta te m e n t i s t h a t th e two a x es a re b oth o f v a lu e to an in d iv id u a l in d e p e n d en t o f s e x, b u t i n g e n e r a l, th e y are e x p e c te d to be f u l f i l l e d a c c o r d in g to s e x. I t w ould, how ever, seem a d van tageou s n o t o n ly on an in d iv id u a l l e v e l b ut a ls o on a s o c i e t a l l e v e l f o r

24 12 in d i v id u a ls to be as com p eten t and c o m p le te ly d ev elo p ed in as many f a c e t s as i s w it h in t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s. L it e r a t u r e d e s c r ib in g p h y s io lo g ic a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l m alad ju stm en t c o n d it io n s i n each s e x p ro v id e some su p p o rt to the h y p o th e s is th a t b oth co m p e te n c ie s may e x i s t w ith in each se x grou p. The c o m p e te n c ie s may e x i s t b u t are n o t en cou raged to d e v e lo p and, in f a c t, a re su p p re sse d to th e p o in t where t h e i r e x p r e s s io n c a u se s th e in d iv id u a l a n x ie t y. Horner d is c u s s e s th e f e a r o f s u c c e s s i n women and argu es... t h a t m ost women have a m o tiv e to a v o id s u c c e s s, t h a t i s, a d i s p o s i t i o n to become a n x io u s ab ou t a c h ie v in g s u c c e s s b eca u se th e y e x p e c t n ega t i v e co n seq u en ces (su c h a s s o c i a l r e j e c t i o n a n d / or f e e l i n g s o f b e in g u n fem in in e ) as a r e s u l t o f s u c c e e d i n g...the p re se n c e o f a m otive to a v o id s u c c e s s...im p lie s t h a t th e e x p r e s s io n o f th e a c h ie v e m e n t-d ir e c te d te n d e n c ie s o f m ost o th e r w is e p o s i t i v e l y m o tiv a te d young women i s i n h i b i t e d by th e a r o u s a l o f a th w a r tin g d i s p o s i t i o n to be a n x io u s ab ou t th e n e g a tiv e co n seq u en ces th e y e x p e c t w i l l f o llo w th e d e s ir e d s u c c e s s ( , p ). M a les, on th e o th e r hand, have o f t e n b een d ep riv e d th e e x p r e s s io n o f em o tio n s (B a lw ick and Peek ). S t r e s s r e l a t e d d is o r d e r s su ch as u l c e r s, h e a r t c o n d itio n s have b een th o u g h t to b ea r a r e la t i o n s h i p to th e i n a b i l i t y to e x p r e s s in t e r n a l f e e l i n g s and a n x ie ty i n op en, outward b e h a v io r s ( S e ly e, H , W olf and G o o d ell ). Even a r g u in g f o r a b i o l o g i c a l - g e n e t i c s t a t i c c o n d itio n o f sex d if f e r e n c e s w hereby v a r io u s c o m p eten cie s a re b e stow ed to ea ch s e x, th e n a tu r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n phenomena a r i s e s. F or exam ple, th e s t a t i s t i c a l model u sed to

25 13 d e s c r ib e th e o ccu rren ce o f i n t e l l i g e n c e, r e f l e x r e s p o n s e s, ach iev em en t m o tiv a tio n i n th e p o p u la tio n i s th e f a m ilia r normal c u r v e. Boverman, e t a l., e x p r e s s t h i s p o in t as f o llo w s t Even i f b i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s d id c o n tr ib u te to th e fo r m a tio n o f th e s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p e s, enormous o v e r la p u n d o u b ted ly e x i s t s b etw een th e s e x e s w ith r e s p e c t to su ch t r a i t s a s l o g i c a l a b i l i t y, o b j e c t i v i t y, in d e p e n d en ce, e t c *, th a t i s, a g r e a t many women u n d o u b ted ly p o s s e s s th e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to a g r e a te r d eg ree th an do many men ( 1970, p. 6 ). C o n seq u e n tly, i t i s u n r e a l i s t i c to b e lie v e th a t b e h a v io r s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e x p r e s s iv e and in s tr u m e n ta l co m p eten cie s e x i s t a t a c e r t a in l e v e l as a f u n c t io n o f s e x. I f such b e h a v io r s are n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r e s c r ib e d by n a tu r e, th en how do th e y come to be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c e r t a in i n d i v i d u als? E n vironm en tal and I n t e r a c t io n a l Barps S e v e r a l m e th o d o lo g ic a l problem s p r e c lu d e th e m easurement and co n seq u en t u n d e r sta n d in g o f b e h a v io r s in d i c a t i v e o f c o n s t r u c t s su ch as in s tr u m e n ta l and e x p r e s s iv e com petenc i e s. The prim ary f a c t o r co n fo u n d in g th e s i t u a t i o n i s tim e. That i s, ch an ges w ith in th e in d iv id u a l o v e r tim e, ch an ges i n th e m eaning o f b e h a v io r o v e r tim e, and changes i n th e m easu rin g t o o l s u sed to document e v o lv in g b e h a v io r s. W hile r e s e a r c h e r s s t r u g g le w ith th e a fo rem en tio n e d problem s, th e more t h e o r e t i c a l w r it e r s c o n tin u e to o b s e r v e, in t e g r a t e, and i n t e r p r e t b e h a v io r s w ith in t h e i r p e r s p e c t iv e fram eworks.

26 14 I t i s p r im a r ily from th e t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t iv e t h a t th e d evelopm ent o f c o m p ete n cie s are exam ined i n t h i s r e v ie w. The em ergence o f e x p r e s s iv e and in s tr u m e n ta l com pete n c ie s are h y p o th e s iz e d by r e s e a r c h e r s and t h e o r i s t s to b e g in in in fa n c y. A uthors r e p r e s e n t in g t h e o r e t i c a l - and o b s e r v a t io n a l- p o in t s o f v ie w d is c u s s th e d evelopm en t o f com petence in in fa n c y. B oth W hite ( ) and Wenar (1964) sp eak o f in f a n t com petency i n term s o f th e i n f a n t s ' a b i l i t y t o a f f e c t th e en vironm en t i n w hich th e y e x i s t. F or W hite t h i s i s la b e le d " e ff e c ta n c e m o tiv a tio n " and f o r Wenar " e x e c u tiv e com p eten ce". L ew is and G oldberg ( ) propose t h a t a m o tiv a tio n c o n s t r u c t b e g in s i n in fa n c y th rou gh th e m o th e r -in fa n t i n t e r a c t i o n. Here a g e n e r a liz e d e x p e c ta n c y i s form ed as th e in f a n t r e a l i z e s h is /h e r b e h a v io r has in f lu e n c e i n a f f e c t i n g th e en v iro n m en t. The above m en tion ed a u th o rs em phasize p r im a r ily th e in s tr u m e n ta l d im en sion o f com p eten ce. E rik so n ( ) im p lie s b oth e x p r e s s iv e and in s tr u m e n ta l com petence in h is s t a g e s o f p s y c h o s o c ia l d ev elo p m en t. The f i r s t d ev elo p m en ta l s t a g e E rik so n d e lin e a t e s r e q u ir e s th e d evelopm ent o f t r u s t, w h ile th e seco n d s ta g e em p h a sizes th e d evelopm ent o f autonom y. In th e form er th e t r u s t t h a t d ev e lo p s a llo w s se c u r e f e e l i n g s to em erge p e r m ittin g op en, h o n e st i n t e r a c t io n and e x p r e s s io n w ith o th e r s as opposed to f e a r and s u s p ic io n o f o t h e r s. Autonomy r e q u ir e s th e d evelopm en t o f in d ep en d en t b e h a v io r s r a th e r th an b e h a v io r s w hich demand

27 15 d ep en dent r e l a t io n s h i p s w ith o t h e r s. The d evelop m en t o f e x p r e s s iv e and in str u m e n ta l c o m p e te n c ie s, as has b een d is c u s s e d, a re in a la r g e p a r t a f u n c t io n o f s o c i a l c o n ta c t and i n t e r a c t i o n. F or exam ple, c h ild r e n may have in h e r e n t in d ep en d en t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s but i f th e e x p e r ie n c e w ith in t h e i r l i f e s p a c e works to d r iv e t h a t in d ep en d en ce in t o an ger or p a s s i v i t y th e n th e d evelopm en t o f in d ep en d en ce has b een th w arted through th e in t e r a c t i o n w ith o t h e r s. U n d ersta n d in g o f t h i s com plex s i t u a t i o n r e q u ir e s c o n s id e r a t io n o f th e in d iv id u a ls who resp on d to c h ild r e n, th e c h i ld r e n ' s p e r c e p tio n o f o th ers* r e s p o n s e s, and th e c h i l d r e n ' s r e s p o n s e s to o t h e r s. SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPING AS IT INFLUENCES THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPETENCE S te r e o t y p in g D e fin ed Competency p o t e n t i a l s are th o u g h t t o emerge e a r ly in l i f e b u t e v id e n c e e x i s t s to s u g g e s t t h a t th e s e p o t e n t i a l s a re n u rtu red or r e p r e s s e d p r im a r ily i n term s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s se x and p r e s c r ib e d s e x - r o l e. The in d iv id u a l who en g a g es in judgm ent o f b e h a v io r s u s in g se x as a r e fe r e n c e p o in t i s s a id to be s t e r e o t y p in g. K is c h e l d e f in e s s t e r e o t y p in g as h a v in g...e x p e c t a t io n s ab out th e d i s p o s i t i o n s and t y p i c a l b e h a v io r s su p p o se d ly d is p la y e d by members o f a c a te g o r y ( , p. 6 ). F or s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p in g s p e c i f i c a l l y, th e p ic t u r e em erges as d e s c r ib e d by Kagan,

28 16...f e m a l e s a re supposed to i n h i b i t a g g r e s s io n and open d is p la y o f s e x u a l u r g e s, to be p a s s iv e w ith men, t o be n u r tu ra n t t o o t h e r s, t o c u l t i v a t e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s, and t o m a in ta in an a f f e c t i v e, s o c i a l l y p o is e d and f r i e n d l y p o stu r e w ith o t h e r s. M ales are u rg ed to be a g g r e s s iv e i n th e fa c e o f a t t a c k, in d ep en d en t i n problem s i t u a t i o n s, s e x u a lly a g g r e s s iv e, i n c o n t r o l o f r e g r e s s iv e u r g e s, and s u p p r e s s iv e o f s tr o n g e m o tio n s, e s p e c i a l l y a n x ie t y ( , p ). S te r e o ty p in g h e lp s o r g a n iz e in fo r m a tio n or p ro v id e a s t r u c t u r e f o r p e r c e iv in g th e w o r ld. H owever, th e r e i s a d isa d v a n ta g e t o t h i s method o f o r g a n iz a tio n. Once th e s t r u c t u r e i s s e t, i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t to add in fo r m a tio n t h a t does n o t f i t th e p r e c o n c e iv e d id e a o f w hat sh o u ld be th e c a s e. C o n seq u e n tly, new in p u t may be ig n o r e d or d i s co u n ted as in e r r o r. Such an a t t i t u d e d oes n o t prom ote s o c i a l change i n d e v e lo p in g in s tr u m e n ta l and e x p r e s s iv e co m p eten c ie s i n m a les and f e m a le s. As John S tu a r t M ill n o t e s, "The p e r p e tu a l o b s ta c le t o human advancem ent i s custom " ( P e te r 1977t p* 87). Real Sex-Differences vs Sex-Role Stereotyping of Children's Behavior A question often debated is whether sex differences are imposed by biased individuals or whether sex differences reflect true differences in male and female behavior. Sex d if f e r e n c e s i n b e h a v io r s o f n eo n a te s (Moss 1967) a re o f t e n c i t e d a s s u p p o r tin g th e " tru e d i f f e r e n c e s id e o f th e d eb ate s in c e, v e r y e a r ly in l i f e, th e c h i l d sh o u ld be f r e e from o u ts id e e f f e c t s on t h e i r b e h a v io r s. A ssum ing c e r t a i n b e h a v io r d if f e r e n c e s are r e a l (i.e., o b serv ed i n the in fa n t)

29 and r e l a t e to d i f f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s e s by a d u lt s ( i. e., a d u lts resp on d to in f a n t c u e s ) a t th e in f a n t s t a g e, one ca n n o t 17 e x t r a p o la t e th a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h ip rem ains s t a t i c. From a d ev elo p m en ta l s ta n d p o in t, tim e b r in g s ch a n g e. B e l l, W e lle r, and W aldrop ( ) n o te i n t e n s i t y l e v e l r e v e r s a ls o v e r tim e as c h ild r e n d ev elo p e d from th e newborn to p r e s c h o o l p e r io d. I f a d u lt s resp on d ed to th e r e a l d if f e r e n c e s ( i. e., r e v e r s a ls in i n t e n s i t y l e v e l s ) i n th e c h i l d, th e n o v er tim e th e y sh o u ld be r e v e r s in g t h e i r r e s p o n s e s to th e c h i l d. I n a d d it io n, th e r e a re many d ev elo p m en ta l ch an ges o c c u r r in g in th e i n f a n t. B ein g a ttu n e d to th e many ch an ges w ould r e q u ir e e x tr a o r d in a r y s e n s i t i v i t y and r e s p o n s iv e n e s s on th e p a r t o f th e a d u lt tow ard th e in f a n t. One method a p erso n em ploys to o r g a n iz e, s im p lif y, o r perhaps ig n o r e th e v a r y in g in f a n t c u e s i s t o s t e r e o t y p e th e b e h a v io r and resp ond a c c o r d in g ly. The r e la t i o n s h ip b etw een r e a l d if f e r e n c e s and im posed d if f e r e n c e s i s com plex and th e u n ta n g lin g o f th e i n t e r a c t io n s i s f a r from c o m p le te. The E f f e c t o f S g x -R o le S te r e o ty p in g on C h ild r en * s B eh a v io r D i f f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s e s to c h ild r e n a c c o r d in g to t h e i r s e x do o c c u r. T h is p o s i t i o n i s su p p o rted i n s t u d ie s where c h il d r e n s s e x i s la b e le d som etim es a s m ale and som etim es as fem a le (R o th b a rt and Maccoby 1966* Condry and Condry 1976* Meyer and S o b ie s z e k 1972* S o b ie sz e k 1977* S ea v e y, Katz and Zalk 1975)- In these studies a child is observed in the same or similar situation, giving equivalent

30 18 b e h a v io r a l c u e s. Thus, th e d iff e r e n c e i n in t e r p r e t in g and resp o n d in g to th e b eh a v io r l i e s w ith th e o b se r v e r. The f in d in g s o f th e se s t u d ie s, how ever, do n o t r e v e a l a sim p le e f f e c t f o r a t t r ib u t e d se x o f th e c h ild. The c o m p le x itie s w hich are in v o lv e d w i l l be d is c u s s e d in th e s e c t io n, "O bserver S ex-r ole B ia s ". S e x -r o le s t e r e o t y p in g as a r e a l con cern in the d e v elo p ment o f c h ild r e n i s em phasized by s t u d ie s o f c h ild r e n s p e r c e p tio n s o f th e m se lv e s and o th e r s as m ales and fe m a le s. I s th e r e agreem ent among c h ild r e n th a t b oth m ales and fem a les can su cc e ed, do v a ry in g ta s k s, and ex p re ss em otions? I f th e r e i s agreem ent, th en the c h ild r e n a re n o t s t e r e o t y p in g. As a con sequ en ce o f a n o n -s te r e o ty p ic a t t it u d e, c h ild r e n are more l i k e l y to d ir e c t t h e ir l i v e s in accordance w ith p o t e n t i a l i t i e s r a th e r than by p r e s c r ib e d s e x - r o l e s. A ccord ing to W illia m s, B en n ett and B e st (1975) by f i v e y e a r s o f age c h ild r e n c l e a r l y d e fin e s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p e s re g a rd in g a p p ro p ria te b e h a v io r s, t r a i t s, and e x p e c ta t io n s. Not o n ly do c h ild r e n d e fin e th e s te r e o ty p e s but th ey b e lie v e m ales to be str o n g and com petent w h ile women to be weak and in com p eten t (K ohlberg 1966). To add an oth er dim ension to the above exam ple, s t u d ie s e x p lo r in g c h ild r e n 's a c tu a l ta s k perform ance and p la y b eh a v io r b rin g r e a l-w o r ld e v id e n c e to the i s s u e. Barry and Barry ( 1976) ob served t h r e e - t o f i v e - y e a r - o ld s in t h e i r p resc h o o l s e t t i n g as th e y p la y ed i n th e h ou sek eep in g c o m e r.

31 19 T r a d i t i o n a l l y, t h i s a rea o f th e p r e s c h o o l was d e sig n e d to p r o v id e o p p o r tu n ity f o r th e c h ild r e n to r o le p la y, an a c t i v i t y th o u g h t to be im p o rta n t to t h e i r s e x - r o l e d e v e lo p m ent. The r e s u l t s o f t h e i r o b s e r v a tio n a l stu d y in d ic a t e d th a t from a g e s th r e e to f i v e boys g r a d u a lly came to r e j e c t th e s t e r e o t y p i c a l l y fem a le en viron m en t o f th e h o u sek eep in g c o m e r w h ile g i r l s came t o a c c e p t i t a s a p p r o p r ia te. The c h ild r e n have d e fin e d th e a re a as fem a le t e r r i t o r y and have resp on d ed a c c o r d in g to th e p r e s c r ib e d s e x - r o l e. L ook in g a t c h i l d r e n ' s p e r c e p tio n s o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s and a cc o m p lish m en ts, P o l l i s and D oyle ( ) found f i r s t grad ers* s e l f - c o n c e p t to v a ry as a f u n c t io n o f s e x. A lth ou gh g i r l s perform ed as w e ll as b oys on a b a l l th row in g t a s k, th e g i r l s perform ance was e s tim a te d by th e g i r l s and boys t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y lo w e r th an t h a t o f th e b o y s. Thus, th e s t e r e o t y p e s o f th e in co m p e ten t fem a le and com p eten t m ale had b een i n f l u e n c i a l i n form in g th e p e r c e p tio n s o f b oth th e boys and g i r l s i n th e s tu d y. The im p lic a t io n s a re profound when ex ten d ed to th e grow th o f a c h i l d s s e l f - c o n c e p t, s e l f - c o n f id e n c e, and s e lf- c o m p e t e n c e. Sum m arizing, th e r e i s e v id e n c e t o s u b s t a n t ia t e s t e r e o t y p ic r e s p o n s e s and b e h a v io r s b oth from a d u lts o b s e r v in g c h ild r e n as w e ll as from th e c h ild r e n th e m s e lv e s. In o rd er to b e t t e r u n d ersta n d th e com plex r e l a t i o n s h i p s in v o lv e d in s t e r e o t y p i c a l r e s p o n s e s and b e h a v io r s, a re v iew o f l i t e r a tu r e p e r t a in in g to one d im en sion o f th e s i t u a t i o n w i l l

32 be made. That d im ension i s o b ser v er b ia s and i t s r e l a t i o n sh ip to s e x - r o le s t e r e o t y p in g. 20 OBSERVER SEX-HOLS BIAS Prom the l i t e r a t u r e review ed i n th e a rea s o f s e x - r o le s t e r e o ty p in g and o b se r v er b ia s, th e sam ple o f o b serv er s u b je c ts ran ges from h ig h sc h o o l s tu d e n ts through p r a c t ic in g c l i n i c i a n s ( p s y c h i a t r i s t s, p s y c h o lo g is t s, s o c i a l w o rk ers). Between th e s e two groups are c o lle g e s tu d e n ts, te a c h e r s, and p a r e n ts. Both male and fem ale o b se r v e r s have p a r t ic ip a t e d as s u b j e c t s. Other s u b je c t v a r ia b le s examined in th e se s t u d ie s in c lu d e amount o f c o n ta c t w ith c h ild r e n, ex p er ie n c e w ith m idd le and low so c ia l-e c o n o m ic c l a s s c h ild r e n, and amount o f g en e r a l s e x - r o le b ia s. R e s u lts found to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d if f e r e n t due to the c h a r a c e r t is t ie s o f th e sam ples were f a r from sim p le "main e f f e c t " r e la t io n s h ip s f o r sex o f the c h ild o b serv ed. V a r ia b ili t y in se x ty p in g by male and fem ale o b ser v ers o f d i f f e r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s has been d e te c te d. In ord er to u nd erstan d th e r e la t io n s h ip s r e v e a le d in th e se s t u d ie s, th e sam ple c h a r a c t e r is t ic s ( e.g. s e x, e x p e r ie n c e ) must be co n sid e r e d as w e ll as th e ex p erim en ta l p roced u res ( e. g. way s t im u li p resen te d to s u b j e c ts ) employed to e l i c i t the re sp o n se s to c h ild r e n 's b e h a v io r. B ecause o f the im portance o f the in fo r m a tio n g iv e n to an o b ser v er in th e ex p erim en ta l s e t t i n g, th e m ethods u sed to communicate in fo r m a tio n to o b se r v ers need to be c o n sid e r e d.

33 21 S ex-r ole S te r e o ty p in g When Reading A W ritten Account o f B ehavior Etaugh and Hughes (1975)» u s in g a w r it t e n sta tem e n t d e s c r ib in g a c h ild la b e le d as a boy o r as a g i r l, had te a c h e r s respond on a s e v e n -p o in t s c a le to th e d e sc r ib e d c h ild in term s o f th e c h i l d ' s a g g r e s s iv e, d ep en dent, and achievem ent b e h a v io r s. For exam ple, did the te a c h e r s "see" such b eh a v io rs as t y p ic a l? The te a c h e r s were 6b m ale and 6b f e m ale f i f t h through e ig h th grade in s t r u c t o r s in low and midd le income s c h o o ls. D iffe r e n c e s in r a tin g s r e la t e d to the se x o f the te a c h e r s in d ic a te d th a t fem ale te a c h e r s ra ted a g g r e s s io n as a more t y p ic a l stu d e n t b eh a v io r ( p <. 05) than d id the m ale te a c h e r s. As a group, male and fem ale te a c h e r s ex p re sse d a ten d en cy (p^.lb) f o r a dependent g i r l to be more t y p ic a l than a dependent b oy. A g g r e ssio n was seen as e q u a lly t y p ic a l o f boys and g i r l s, but ach ievem en t b eh a v io r was view ed as t y p ic a l f o r g i r l s ( p <. 0 2 ). T eachers in the m id d le -c la s s s e t t i n g view ed s t r i v i n g b eh a v io r as more t y p ic a l stu d e n t b eh a v io r than d id te a c h e r s in lo w - c la s s sc h o o l s e t t i n g s ( p <. 007). L e v it in and Chananie (1972) u sed th e same m ethodology as Etaugh and Hughes but v a r ie d th e sam ple. F o rty fem ale f i r s t and secon d grade te a c h e r s from m id d le -c la s s s c h o o ls com prised th e sam ple. T his sample d if f e r e d i n re sp o n se s from Etaugh and Hughes* sample in th a t th ey r a te d dependent fem a les and a g g r e s s iv e m ales s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p <. 05 ) more t y p ic a l than dependent m ales and a g g r e s s iv e fe m a le s.

34 22 Sum m arizing th e above two s t u d ie s, as th e age o f th e c h ild r e n in c r e a s e d a d u lt s e x - r o le s t e r e o t y p in g o f t h e i r a g g r e s s iv e and d ep en dent b e h a v io r was l e s s e v id e n t. One im p lic a t io n c o u ld be t h a t s t e r e o t y p in g by te a c h e r s tow ard th e young c h ild d oes n o t have a l a s t i n g e f f e c t on th e b e h a v io r a l d evelop m en t o f th e c h i ld and th e b e h a v io r s d id d i f f e r a s r e p o r te d. On th e o th e r hand, th e te a c h e r s o f o ld e r c h ild r e n may v ie w b e h a v io r s d i f f e r e n t l y than te a c h e r s o f you nger c h ild r e n. U sin g a sam ple o f s c h o o l p s y c h o lo g is t s, C hasen and W einberg (1975) em ployed a w r it t e n c a s e h is t o r y m ethod. "Somewhat u n h ealth y" e x p r e s s io n s o f a c t i v e and p a s s iv e b e h a v io r s by boys and g i r l s w ere p r e s e n te d to s c h o o l p sy ch o l o g i s t s f o r t h e i r p r o f e s s io n a l e v a lu a t io n. The 61 fem ale and 59 m ale p s y c h o lo g is t s ten d ed to b ia s t h e i r judgm ents o f m en tal h e a lt h o f th e e i g h t to te n y e a r - o ld c h ild r e n in term s o f th e c h i l d r e n ' s s e x. A n a ly s is o f th e r e sp o n se s by p s y c h o lo g is t s * s e x and g e n e r a l s e x - r o l e b ia s r e v e a le d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s e s ( p <. 0 1 ). Men h o ld in g u n t r a d it io n a l s e x - r o l e a t t i t u d e s c o u n te r s te r e o ty p e d. A ls o, women c o u n te r s te r e o ty p e d. C o u n te r s te r e o ty p in g o f b e h a v io r o ccu rs when an in d iv id u a l c a t e g o r iz e s b e h a v io r s i n a d i r e c t i o n o p p o s ite th e t y p i c a l c a t e g o r iz a t io n. F or exam p le, i f g i r l s are se e n as more a c t i v e than boys who e x h ib it s im ila r b e h a v io r th e n c o u n te r s t e r e o t y p in g has o cc u r r e d. Chasen o b serv ed t h a t

35 23...f e m a l e s c h o o l p s y c h o lo g is t s ap pear e g a l i t a r i a n in t h e i r s c o r in g o f p a s s iv e b o y s, a c t i v e b o y s, and p a s s iv e g i r l s, and c o u n t e r s t e r e o t y p ic i n s c o r in g th e a c t iv e g i r l s ( P* ). Thus c o u n te r s t e r e o t y p in g adds more c o m p le x ity to th e s t e r e o t y p in g o f b e h a v io r s. These a fo r em e n tio n e d s t u d i e s, a lo n g w ith o th e r s (Broverman e t a l. 1970, F a g o t 1973) r e in f o r c e th e e x i s t e n c e o f se x s t e r e o t y p in g when s t e r e o t y p in g i s m easured by r a t in g s o f a w r it t e n d e s c r ip t i o n. I n a d d it io n, s t e r e o t y p in g te n d e n c ie s and tr e n d s appear t o v a ry a s a f u n c t io n o f th e r a t e r s ' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. S ex -R o le S te r e o t y p in g Under C o n d itio n s Where B p h a v io ra l In fo r m a tio n i s T ra n sm itted bv Audio a n d /o r V is u a l Means A nother m e th o d o lo g ic a l approach to s tu d y in g se x s t e r e o t y p in g e n t a i l s th e u se o f v i s u a l a n d /o r a u d io im ages o r m essa g es where th e p e r so n to be e v a u a te d i s se e n a n d /o r h ea rd. These im ages and m essa g e s p r o v id e more in fo r m a tio n to th e o b se r v e r th an a w r it t e n d e s c r ip t io n. The added in fo r m a tio n i s in th e form o f a d d it io n a l cu es su ch as v o ic e to n e and body movem ent. S l i d e s, f i l m s, and v id e o ta p e s have b een u sed in a v a r i e t y o f s e x - r o l e r e la t e d r e s e a r c h s t u d ie s (S c h iffe n b a u e r and Babineau , R othbart and Maccoby 1966, Meyer and S o b ie s z e k 1972, S o b ie s z e k , S te v e n so n e t a l ). A com p arison o f th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d i n s t u d ie s u s in g th e w r it t e n d e s c r ip t i o n approach w ith s t u d ie s u s in g th e v is u a l/a u d io approach i s w arran ted.

36 ZUr U s i n g a media more closely representing reality, R othbart and Maccoby (1 9 66) tap e record ed th e v o ic e o f a c h ild who was som etim es i d e n t i f i e d as a boy and som etim es as a g i r l. The p a r t ic ip a n t s in t h i s stud y were 93 m others and 32 fa th e r s o f p r e sc h o o l c h ild r e n e n r o lle d in a m id d lec l a s s n u rsery s c h o o l. T heir ta s k was to l i s t e n to th e v e r b a liz a t io n s o f th e boy or g i r l made in a s p e c if i e d s i t u a t i o n and respond in w r itin g as th ey would i f p resen ted w ith th e same s i t u a t i o n in r e a l i t y. For exam ple, th e reco rd ed v o ic e would sa y, 1 d o n 't l i k e t h i s game. I t ' s a s tu p id game. You re s tu p id, Daddy." The tap e would then be sto p p ed, a llo w in g th e s u b je c ts to w r ite t h e ir r e s p o n s e s. The responses were then rated on a permissiveness (i.e., a llo w in g o f c e r t a in b e h a v io r s) s c a le a lo n g the d im ensions o f h e lp s e e k in g, a g g r e s s io n, dependency, autonomy, com fort seeking. Differences in the responses of mothers and fathers v a r ie d as a fu n c tio n o f the la b e le d sex o f th e v o ic e. Comfort se e k in g ( p <. 05), dependency ( p <. 1 0 ), a g g r e s s io n toward parent ( p <.0 5 ) showed significant interaction w ith se x o f p a ren t where m others a llo w ed more o f the b eh a v io r from boys and fa th e r s from g i r l s. The n o tio n o f s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p in g was confounded w ith the m o th e r -fa th e r roles. The authors acknowledge that... th e m others i n t h i s stu d y were more l i k e l y to a llo w a g g r e s s io n toward th em selv es from t h e i r b oys, as ex p ec te d in s e x - r o le s t e r e o ty p e s, but th e y were a ls o more a c c e p ta n t o f com fort se e k in g in t h e i r son s than in t h e ir

37 25 d a u g h ters, an e n t i r e l y u nexpected f in d in g. F a th er s, on the o th er hand, were more a c c e p t- a n t o f t h e i r d a u g h te r 's com fort s e e k in g, but a ls o a llo w ed more a g g r e s s io n to be d ir e c te d toward th e m se lv es from t h e ir daughters th an from t h e ir so n s ( 1966, p. 2^2 ). The p aren t r e sp o n se s e l i c i t e d in the R othbart and Maccoby (1966) stu d y as compared to th e s t u d ie s u s in g n a r r a tiv e approaches are more c o n s is t e n t a lth o u g h n o t in s t e r e o t y p ic a l d ir e c t io n s. The natu re o f the ta sk w hich r e q u ired an a c tio n resp o n se to a r e a l i s t i c s i t u a t i o n may have produced the c o n s is t e n t r e s u l t s. For exam ple, p a r t ic ip a n ts were g iv e n more in fo r m a tio n ( s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n and a v er b a l s t im u li) w ith leew ay to respond as th ey w ish ed. R aters l a t e r c a te g o r iz e d th e p a r tic ip a n ts * r e s p o n s e s. On the o th e r hand, p a r t ic ip a n t s i n the n a r r a tiv e s t u d ie s read on ly a d e s c r ip tio n o f a c h ild and th en were ask ed to r a te the c h ild on words s e le c t e d by the ex p erim en ter. In the R othbart and Maccoby (1966) stu d y, th e s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c tio n s betw een se x o f p a ren t and se x o f c h ild in r e la t io n to the t y p ic a l s e x -ty p e d b eh a v io rs o f a g g r e s s io n and com fort se e k in g co u ld be e x p la in e d in a p s y c h o a n a ly tic a l frame o f r e fe r e n c e. For exam ple, th e au th ors d is c u s s th e c r o s s - s e x r e sp o n se s in F reudian term s such as r iv a lr y and O edipal com plex. Such an in t e r p r e t a t io n r e la t e s s p e c i f i c a l l y to th e em o tio n a l p a r e n t -c h ild r e la t io n s h ip. I f h ea rin g a ta p e r e c o r d in g as opposed to rea d in g a d e s c r ip tio n p r e s e n ts a more l i f e - l i k e s t im u li to e l i c i t s u b j e c ts ' r e sp o n se s, what im pact would a v id e o ta p e re co r d in g

38 26 have on s u b je c ts ' s e x - r o le s t e r e o ty p in g b eh a v io rs? Condry and Condry (1976) employed ^5 male and 159 fem ale c o lle g e stu d e n ts to ob serve v id e o ta p e s o f a nine-m onth o ld in fa n t who was som etim es d esc rib ed as m ale, som etim es as fem a le. The s u b je c ts v a r ie d in t h e ir e x p e r ie n c e w ith c h ild r e n and were grouped in to h igh and low e x p e r ie n c e c a t e g o r ie s. The in f a n t was p r esen te d fo u r d if f e r e n t s t im u li, f i v e tim es s u c c e s s i v e ly. The stu d en t s u b je c ts r a te d the i n f a n t ' s em otion al re sp o n se s o f fe a r, a n g er, p le a su r e on a 0 to 10 s c a le where 0 eq u a ls absence o f em otion and 10 eq u a ls s t r o n g e s t i n t e n s i t y o f the em otion. The stu d e n ts a ls o made g en era l r a tin g s o f th e c h i l d ' s a c t i v i t y and p o ten cy c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. As in o th er se x s te r e o ty p in g s t u d ie s, th e in t e r a c t io n s r a th e r than main e f f e c t s were o f s i g n i f i c a n c e. The r e la t io n s h ip betw een se x o f stu d e n t r a t e r, a t tr ib u t e d se x o f th e c h ild and s tu d e n t's e x p e r ie n c e w ith c h ild r e n r e v e a le d m ales w ith h igh e x p e r ie n c e a b le to "see" more o f a d iff e r e n c e due to se x la b e l than m ales w ith l i t t l e e x p e r i ence ( p <. 00l ). Fem ales w ith h ig h e x p e r ie n c e gave h ig h e r r a tin g s (saw a g r e a te r i n t e n s i t y o f em otion) to fem ale than male la b e le d in fa n t, w h ile fem a les w ith low e x p e r i ence r a te d the fem ale la b e le d in f a n t lo w er. The p rev io u s ex p er ie n c e the stu d e n t p a r t ic ip a n t s had w ith c h ild r e n had d if f e r i n g e f f e c t s f o r m ales and fe m a le s. The ex p e r ie n c e s c a le u sed, however, was s e lf- a d m in is t e r e d and covered a wide range o f ages ( b ir t h to th r ee y e a r s ).

39 In a d d it io n, no d e s c r ip t i o n o f th e s t u d e n t s ' e x p e r ie n c e was 27 g iv e n. A noth er r e s e r v a t io n about t h i s stu d y r e l a t e s to th e b e h a v io r o f th e c h i l d who was o b serv ed and r a t e d. A lth ou gh th e c h il d was o b serv ed v i a v id e o ta p e by th e s t u d e n t s, r a th e r th an o n ly d e s c r ib e d to th e s tu d e n t, th e o b serv ed c h ild was r e a c t in g to p r e s e n te d s t im u li r a th e r th an r e a c t in g to n a t u r a lly o c c u r r in g e v e n t s. P erhaps th e c o n tr iv e d n a tu re o f t h i s e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n was a f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g th e r e s u l t s. C o n s id e r in g th e c o m p le x ity o f th e r e s u l t s ( i. e., no sim p le e f f e c t f o r se x l a b e l a p p lie d to a c h ild ) o b ta in e d i n th e n a r r a t iv e s t u d ie s and th e s im ila r r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y, i t can be h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t th e e x p e r im en ta l p ro ced u res may have produced su ch r e s u l t s. However, s t e r e o ty p in g was e v id e n t in th e s tu d e n ts ' gen eral, r a t in g s o f th e c h i l d. These r a t in g s were o b ta in e d a f t e r th e e x p e r im e n ta l p roced u re had b een co m p leted. The c h i l d was r a te d as more a c t iv e and p o te n t when la b e le d m ale th an when la b e le d f e m ale ( p <. 0 5 ). E vid en ce f o r s e x - r o le s t e r e o t y p in g toward th e v e r y young c h i ld se e n on v id e o ta p e was p ro v id ed i n t h i s e x p e r im e n ta l s e t t i n g. U sin g somewhat o ld e r c h ild r e n as s t i m u li, Meyer and S o b ie sz e k ( 1972) and S o b ie s z e k ( ) i n v e s t i g a t e d a d u l t ' s p e r c e p tio n s o f c r o s s la b e le d m ale and fem a le c h ild r e n 's b e h a v io r. V id e o ta p e s w ere u sed sh ow ing two 17 m on th -old n e u tr a l a p p ea rin g c h ild r e n p la y in g w ith a number o f to y s u nd er th e d i r e c t i o n o f an e x p e r im e n te r. In th e 1972 s tu d y.

40 28 44 m ale and 44 fem a le o b se r v e r s r a te d th e c h ild r e n on 24 a t t r i b u t e s in c lu d in g t y p i c a l s e x - r o le r e la t e d word ite m s su ch as p a s s iv e, c o y, a s s e r t i v e. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e sam ple c o n s id e r e d i n t h i s stu d y were t h e i r se x and p r e v io u s amount o f c o n ta c t w ith sm a ll c h ild r e n. Sex o f o b se r v e r s and amount o f p r e v io u s c o n t a c t w ith c h ild r e n produced no m ain e f f e c t s. C o n s is t e n t, b ut n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t tr e n d s i n th e in t e r a c t io n s, showed fe m a le s and th o s e w ith h ig h c o n t a c t w ith c h ild r e n more l i k e l y t o a t t r ib u t e m a sc u lin e q u a l i t i e s to fe m a le s. T h is r e s u l t i s e x p la in e d as o b s e r v a tio n and in t e r p r e t a t io n o f b e h a v io r made on a r e l a t i v e s c a l e. F or exam ple, th e o b serv ed a g g r e s s io n was h ig h f o r a g i r l ; c o n s e q u e n tly, th e "unusual" b e h a v io r was n o t ic e d. M ales w ith low c o n t a c t resp on d ed a lo n g s te r e o ty p e d d im en sio n s w ith c h ild r e n la b e le d a s m ale b e in g g iv e n more m a sc u lin e r a t i n g s. A ll s u b j e c t s d e s c r ib e d a c h ild o f t h e i r own se x a s h a v in g more q u a l i t i e s o f b oth a m ale and fem a le n a tu re Cp <^.0 5 ). Here a g a in, as i n p r e v io u s s t u d i e s, th e c o m p le x it ie s o f s u b j e c t c h a r a c te r i s t i c s, c h i l d o b ser v ed, and e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n a re e v id e n t. More e x p e r ie n c e d p a r t ic ip a n t s and fem ale p a r t i c i p a n ts made r e v e r s a ls in s t e r e o t y p in g, i. e., c o u n te r s t e r e o t y p in g, by a t t r i b u t i n g more m a sc u lin e a t t r ib u t e s to fe m a le s. A m o d ifie d r e p l i c a t i o n stu d y o f t h i s r e s e a r c h (S o b ie s z e k 1977) y ie ld e d d a ta w hich w ere s im ila r t o th e above d e s c r ib ed s tu d y. In th e s t u d ie s u s in g n a r r a t iv e a cc o u n ts su ch

41 29 r e v e r s a ls were n o t as e v id e n t. Could such d if f e r e n c e s be due in p a r t to th e amount and ty p e o f in fo r m a tio n p ro v id ed to th e o b s e r v e r /r a t e r? FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE EXPERIMENTAL SITUATION C on trol Groups In o rd er to b e t t e r u n d ersta n d th e c o m p le x it ie s e v id e n t in s e x - r o le s t e r e o t y p in g r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s, th e u se o f c o n t r o l groups i s s u g g e s te d (R o sen th a l ). In th e c a s e o f se x l a b e l i n g o f n e u tr a l a p p ea rin g c h ild r e n, a t h ir d group o f o b s e r v e r s would be in c lu d e d who would n o t be cued as to th e se x o f th e c h ild to be o b se r v e d. A dding su ch a group a llo w s th e f o llo w in g q u e s tio n s t o be a d d ressed : "When g iv e n no s p e c i f i c cu e a s to th e se x o f a c h ild who i s b e in g o b se r v e d, do in d iv id u a ls o b s e r v in g t h i s c h i l d im pose a m ale or fem ale frame o f r e fe r e n c e on th e c h ild * s b e h a v io r? ". The c o n tr o l group p r o v id e s a p o in t o f comparis o n where d if f e r e n c e s in m ale and fem a le l a b e l s can be e v a lu a te d n o t o n ly betw een ea ch o th e r b u t a ls o w ith a n e u tr a l " b a se lin e " group. A study by Seavey, Katz and Zalk (1975) employed a control group. Twenty-one male and 21 female nonparent volunteers participated in this study. The volunteers t in t e r a c t e d w ith a th r e e -m o n th -o ld in f a n t i n a la b o r a to r y s e t t i n g f o r a th r e e m inute p e r io d. Random a ssig n m en t was u sed to a s s ig n v o lu n t e e r s to c o n d itio n s where th e y w ere t o ld th e in f a n t was a boy, a g i r l, or a c h i l d. V o lu n te e r s

42 resp on d ed d i f f e r e n t i a l l y as a f u n c t io n o f th e i n f a n t ' s se x l a b e l. The i n t e r a c t i o n o f v o lu n t e e r se x and la b e le d s e x o f th e c h ild was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e.05 l e v e l. The prim ary d if f e r e n c e o ccu rred in th e c o n t r o l group where fe m a le s made p h y s ic a l c o n t a c t w ith th e in f a n t to a g r e a t e r e x t e n t than th e m a le s. A ft e r th e e x p e r im e n ta l s e s s i o n, th e v o lu n te e r s w ere ask ed to r a te th e in f a n t on p a s s i v i t y, h a p p in e ss, f r i e n d l i n e s s, p r e c o c it y, r e s p o n s iv e n e s s, p h y s ic a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s, and warmth. No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s w ere found b etw een r a t in g s o f th e in f a n t when th o u g h t to be a m a le, fe m a le, o r c h i l d. The r a t in g c a t e g o r i e s, how ever, d id n o t p r o v id e s u f f i c i e n t o u t l e t f o r r e s p o n s e s w hich r e l a t e to s e x - r o le b e h a v io r s. T h is c r i t i c i s m o f th e w r it t e n in str u m e n t i s r e in f o r c e d by e x a m in a tio n o f th e c o n tr o l g r o u p 's r e s p o n s e s when th e y w ere ask ed to name th e s e x o f th e in f a n t th e y p la y ed w ith i n th e e x p e r im e n ta l s e t t i n g. C r i t e r i a su ch as s t r e n g t h o f g r a s p, f r a g i l i t y, s o f t n e s s ( i. e., more s t e r e o t y p ic a l c u e s ) w ere u sed by them to d e fin e th e c h i l d ' s s e x. I m p lic a t io n s from th e u se o f su ch c o n tr o l groups c o u ld be made i n r e l a t i o n to th e p ro ce d u re s u sed i n r e s e a r c h ex p erim en ts w hereby i t may o r may n o t be d e s ir a b le to c o n t r o l know ledge o f th e s e x o f th e c h il d to be e v a lu a te d. F utu re r e s e a r c h en d ea v o rs m ig h t b e n e f i t from th e u se o f su ch c o n t r o ls.

43 31 Sex of Observer I n th e se x s t e r e o t y p in g s t u d ie s rev iew ed i n p r e v io u s s e c t i o n s, se x o f th e r a t e r s was found to be an im p ortan t f a c t o r t h a t a f f e c t e d how th e y r a te d m ale and fem a le c h i l d ren (E taugh and Hughes 1975* C hasen and W einberg Condry and Condry 1975* Meyer and S o b ie sz e k 1972, S o b ie sz e k )- A stu d y h o ld in g se x o f th e r a t e r c o n s t a n t w h ile v a r y in g o th e r e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d itio n s w ould p r o v id e new in fo r m a tio n r a th e r th an r e p l i c a t i n g p a s t r e s u l t s. Observers* Previous Observing Experience Generally, the "experience-with-children" factor provided a source of interaction within study results (Condry and Condry 1976, Meyer and Sobieszek 1972, S o b ie s z e k 1977)* Prom th e d i f f e r e n t i a l r e s u l t s o b ta in e d, i n p a r t due to th e v a r i e t y o f e x p e r ie n c e o f th e s u b j e c ts ( t e a c h e r s, p a r e n ts, s t u d e n t s ), th e a d d it io n o f c o n t r o l l i n g th e e x p e r ie n c e f a c t o r may p rove u s e f u l. I f o b s e r v e r s were tr a in e d to o b ser v e c h ild r e n * s b e h a v io r, as i s som etim es done w ith in c h i l d d evelopm ent c o u r s e s, a somewhat c o n s i s t e n t m easure o f o b s e r v a tio n e x p e r ie n c e w ith c h ild r e n c o u ld be assum ed. In a d d it io n to c o n t r o l l i n g f o r c o n s i s te n c y o f e x p e r ie n c e by h a v in g t r a in e d o b s e r v e r s, th e p o p u la tio n t o w hich th e sam ple co u ld be g e n e r a liz e d i s an o f t e n n e g le c t e d g ro u p. T his sam ple in c lu d e s th o s e i n d i v id u a ls who m ight be w orkers i n r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s a t a l e v e l w hich in c lu d e s ta s k s su ch as r a t in g b e h a v io r s, c o d in g

44 32 d a ta, or w r it in g d e s c r ip t i v e s ta te m e n ts. I f s t e r e o t y p in g e x i s t s among t h i s p o p u la tio n, d i f f e r e n t r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e s, t r a in in g o f o b s e r v e r s, and in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s may be j u s t i f i e d. A c a s e i s c i t e d from th e b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s. Cordaro and Iso n ( ) found when u n e x p e r ie n c e d r a t e r s who ob serv ed and reco rd ed number o f body tu r n s and c o n t r a c t io n s i n th e p la n e r ia (fla tw o rm ) were cued as to e x p e c te d r e s u l t s, th e y b ia s e d t h e i r r e s p o n s e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y in th e cued d i r e c t i o n. U sin g a s o p h i s t i c a t e d sam ple o f p la n e r ia r a t e r s, R o sen th a l and H alas ( ) found th e v a r ia n c e i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s a l s o to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t even though th e y were n o t cued as to th e e x p e c te d r e s u l t s. A lthou gh t h e s e p a r t ic u la r d if f e r e n c e s i n r e s p o n s e s may r e f l e c t poor m easurem ent te c h n iq u e, th e y do in d i c a t e t h a t a s tr o n g b ia s in g e f f e c t o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e r r o r can o ccu r in th e con d u ct o f ex p er im en ts r e g a r d le s s o f th e s k i l l o f o b s e r v e r s. I t i s im p o rta n t f o r an e x p e r im e n te r t o be aware o f and c o n t r o l, to th e e x t e n t p o s s i b l e, su ch p o t e n t i a l so u r c e s o f e r r o r. In fo r m a tio n P rovid ed to th e O b server The b e l i e f t h a t o b s e r v e r s are in flu e n c e d by d i f f e r e n t i a l e x p e c t a t io n s has b een e s t a b lis h e d i n a v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l r e s e a r c h s i t u a t i o n s. T y p ic a lly th e o b s e r v e r s are cued by a v e r b a l e x p la n a tio n th a t th e y sh o u ld be o b se r v in g c e r t a i n b e h a v io r s. I n a s tu d y by Rapp ( 1965) e i g h t p a ir s o f o b se r v e r s were le a d t o b e l i e v e t h a t th e c h ild r e n th ey

45 33 w ere o b s e r v in g w ere f e e l i n g e i t h e r "above par" o r "under p ar". When th e o b s e r v e r s w rote an o b j e c t iv e d e s c r ip t io n o f th e c h ild r e n 's b e h a v io r s, th e d e s c r ip t io n s were found to be b ia s e d in th e d i r e c t i o n o f e i t h e r th e above o r below par ex p e c ta n c y ( p = ). Kolman ( ) a ls o found e x p ec ta n c y b ia s in s u b j e c t s ' r a t in g s o f a g g r e s s iv e b e h a v io r s. However, th e b ia s e s w ere i n th e o p p o s ite d i r e c t i o n o f th e c u e. In th e c a s e o f s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p in g, th e v e r b a l c u in g needed i s n o t an e x p la n a tio n b u t m ere ly a l a b e l. I f a b e h a v io r i s se x s te r e o ty p e d th e n i t i s l i k e l y t h a t, when s e e in g a m ale o r fe m a le, an o b s e r v e r w ould have c e r t a in e x p e c ta t io n s (s e x s t e r e o t y p e s ) co n c e r n in g th e b e h a v io r s o f t h a t in d i v id u a l. In th e c a s e o f an i n f a n t, o b s e r v e r s can be in form ed o f th e c h i l d s s e x by th e c h i l d ' s name and r e f e r e n t p ro n o u n s. Com m unication o f B eh a v io ra l In fo r m a tio n to O b servers The m ethods by w hich in fo r m a tio n i s tr a n s m itte d to r a t e r s can v a ry and c o u ld p o t e n t i a l l y a f f e c t t h e i r su b seq u e n t r a t i n g s. C o n se q u e n tly, i t i s im p o r ta n t to exam ine th e m ethods u sed to com m unicate b e h a v io r a l i n f o r m a tio n to r a t e r s. V id e o ta p e s, as w e ll a s w r it t e n d e s c r ip t i o n s, are f r e q u e n t ly em ployed in s t u d ie s r e s e a r c h in g s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p in g. Each o f th e s e modes o f com m unication d i f f e r s in r e s p e c t to amount and ty p e o f in fo r m a tio n p r o v id e d. The e v id e n c e p r e v io u s ly c i t e d i n t h i s r e v ie w in d i c a t e s t h a t mode o f com m unication may have an in f lu e n c e on r a t e r s '

46 34 r a t in g s o f b e h a v io r. S p e c i f i c p o s t hoc f in d in g s in s t u d ie s le n d su p p o rt to t h i s h y p o th e s is and a re d is c u s s e d b elo w. S e v e r a l s t u d ie s (Condry and Condry , Brightm an and Raymond 1975* Kolman 1975) r e f e r to a m b ig u ity o f a s i t u a t i o n o r an e l i c i t e d r e sp o n se w hich may make an o b s e r v e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n more s u b j e c t to s t e r e o t y p in g th a n when th e s i t u a t i o n o r r e sp o n se i s d i s t i n c t. A p e r t in e n t f in d in g o f Condry and Condry ( s e e page 2 6 ) c o n c e r n in g se x s t e r e o ty p in g was a s u b j e c t i v e o b s e r v a tio n (no a p r i o r i m easure t a k e n ). I f th e s u b j e c t s th o u g h t th e y saw a boy c r y, th e y more f r e q u e n tly a t t r ib u t e d t h i s em otion to "anger*'-- a more m a sc u lin e r e s p o n s e. H owever, i f th e s u b j e c t s th ou gh t th ey were w a tch in g a g i r l, th e y more f r e q u e n t ly a t t r ib u t e d t h i s em otion to " fe a r " a more fem in in e r e s p o n s e. These r e s u l t s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t a t p.0 2 l e v e l. The im p ortan ce o f t h i s f in d in g r e l a t e s to th e e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n and th e in fo r m a tio n p ro v id ed to th e o b s e r v e r s. The s u b j e c t s view ed and heard th e c h i l d respond to s t i m u l i, but i f th e c h i l d ' s r e sp o n se was n o t o b v io u s ly e x p r e s s e d, th en th e s u b j e c t s r a te d th e c h i l d ' s r e sp o n se s d i f f e r e n t i a l l y i n se x s te r e o ty p e d d i r e c t i o n s. Drawing from t h i s o b s e r v a tio n, one q u e s tio n t h a t sh o u ld be a sk ed ab ou t e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n s i s th e e x t e n t t o w hich in fo r m a tio n p ro v id ed to o b se r v e r s in ad eq u ate b o th i n q u a n tity and q u a l i t y. The r e s e a r c h o f Meyer and S o b ie s z e k ( s e e page 27) i n d i c a t e s th a t one a s p e c t o f b e h a v io r w hich may be c r u c ia l

47 35 to differential rating of children's behavior may "be the individual characteristics of a specific child. The specific cues observers may be intellectually processing are not necessarily obvious but may be subtle and ambiguous. F o r example, one input to observers may involve cues provided by seeing a child in motion where body movements or "language" and individual peculiarities are evident. Controlling the amount of information to which observers have access could potentially affect their stereotyping tendencies. This control could be established in a study by using differing communication modes to transmit the same behavioral information to observers. Since the use of both videotape and written narrative are prevalent means of communicating behavioral information in the research setting, their comparison is warranted. The comparison of these two methods using subjects familiar with observation techniques will provide an extension of knowledge concerning sex-role stereotyping of behaviors under two procedural methods among individuals likely to be involved in the research process. M e thodological considerations such as these are of practical s i gnificance to r e searchers and implementers of research. SUMMARY Characteristics indicative of instrumental and expressive competencies are thought to play a significant role i n the development of individuals' potential. The

48 developm ent o f th e s e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s are in flu e n c e d by s o c i e t a l s e x - r o le e x p e c ta t io n s. S tu d ie s on s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p in g o f c h ild r e n 's b eh a v io r have found c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e o b se r v e r, as w e ll a s th e o b ser v e e, to have an a s s o c ia t io n w ith s te r e o ty p in g t e n d e n c ie s. However, t h i s a s s o c ia t io n i s n o t alw ays c o n s i s t e n t. In a d d itio n to o b se r v er c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, th e s i t u a t i o n in w hich o b s e r v a tio n s are made p r e s e n ts a r e l a t i v e l y u nexplored d im ension o f s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p in g o f b e h a v io r. The amount and typ e o f in fo r m a tio n o b serv ers r e c e iv e in r e l a t io n to an in d iv id u a l to be e v a lu a te d was d is c u s s e d by s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s as h aving a p o t e n t ia l e f f e c t on o b se r v e r s' judgment about b e h a v io r s. Drawing from w r itin g s in th e f i e l d o f s o c i a l p sy ch o lo g y, s e v e r a l recom m endations reg a rd in g b ia s in e v a lu a tio n o f b eh a v io rs were acknow ledged. The u se o f c o n tr o l grou p s, tr a in e d o b se r v e r s, and c o n s id e r a tio n o f ex p erim en ta l p rocedu res w ith in th e re se a r c h s e t t i n g emerged as im portant v a r i a b le s.

49 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This experimental study was designed to examine several research questions simultaneously. From a population of potential research workers, a non random sample of 6^ volunteers was obtained. These volunteers individually provided sex-role related ratings of two children's behaviors under randomly assigned conditions where the raters either observed the children's behavior on a videotape recording or read about the children's behavior in a written narrative made from the videotape. The raters received one of these two types of information about the children, and they also were given differential sex labels for the children. For example, some raters were told a child was a boy, some were told the same child was a girl, and some were not given a sex label for the child. This research strategy allows more than one hypothesis to be tested. In this study the main effects for sex label applied and type of information received by a rater as well as the interaction of these main effects on rater sex-role re lated r a tings of children's b e h a v i o r was explored. 37

50 38 THE SAMPLE In ord er to c o n tr o l f o r the r a t e r s ' se x and ex p er ien c e w ith c h ild r e n, which have been found to have a b ea rin g on an in d i v id u a l' s s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p in g o f b eh a v io r, fem a les who have had a s im ila r e x p e r ie n c e in o b ser v in g c h ild r e n 's b eh a v io r serv ed as the sam ple. The c o n tr o l o f r a te r se x and o b s e r v a tio n ex p e r ie n ce allow ed a c le a r e r exam in ation o f the prim ary in d ep en d en t v a r ia b le s o f se x la b e l g iv e n to a c h ild and com m unication mode used to tra n sm it a c h i l d s b eh a v io r to the r a t e r. C on trol f o r o b se r v a tio n ex p er ie n c e was p rovid ed by r e c r u it in g v o lu n te e r s who were p a r t ic ip a t in g in an o b serv a t io n - le a r n in g e x p e r ie n c e. The c r i t e r i a f o r an o b s e r v a tio n - le a r n in g ex p e r ie n c e was th a t the r a te r s be e n r o lle d in a c o l le g e l e v e l c h ild developm ent co u rse o f stu d y in which th e developm ent o f o b se r v a tio n s k i l l s was a g o a l. Three u n i v e r s i t i e s p rovid ed a c c e s s to stu d e n ts m eetin g the c r i t e r i a. Three c h ild developm ent c l a s s e s p rovid ed th e t o t a l sample o f v o lu n te e r s (N = 64). The c h ild d ev elo p ment c l a s s e s were w ith in Home Economics programs and had th e developm ent o f o b se r v a tio n s k i l l s as a g o a l o f th e c o u r s e. For each co u rse th e r e were re q u ir ed re a d in g s on o b se r v a tio n tech n iq u es as w e ll as a c tu a l o b se r v a tio n o f c h ild r e n. E ig h teen r a t e r s were o b ta in ed from th e U n iv e r s ity o f M isso u ri E arly C hildhood E d u cation c l a s s. The U n iv e r s ity

51 39 of Missouri is a midwest state school of approximately 28,000 students. At this school the experimenter asked for volunteers in the classroom setting two times within a two week period. The Ohio State University Child Development class provided the second group of volunteers. This University is a large midwest state school with 52,000 students. A somewhat different procurement procedure was follow at this school. The experimenter requested volunteers in the c lassroom setting. The volunteer response rate was lowj consequently, the experimenter proceeded to contact each student via telephone. Twenty-four raters were obtained. The personal touch of a telephone call was appreciated by the students as most who were contacted were willing to participate. The last school contacted was Otterbein College, a private school located in Westerville, Ohio. an enrollment of approximately 1500 students. Otterbein has In this instance, the professor of the Early Childhood Education class asked students to participate in this study. Several students agreed to participate at that time. The experimenter called the remaining individuals in the class and obtained the balance of the sample needed which was 22 students.

52 40 INSTRUMENTAL ON The E xp erim en tal V a r ia b le s The e x p e r im e n ta l v a r ia b le s in t h i s stu d y were two: 1) se x d e s ig n a t io n o f a c h i l d to be r a te d and 2) mode o f com m unicating b e h a v io r a l in fo r m a tio n ab ou t th e c h i l d who i s to be r a te d. The b e h a v io r a l in fo r m a tio n was i n two com m unication form s, a v id e o ta p e r e c o r d in g made by Meyer and S o b ie sz e k (1972) and a d e s c r ip t iv e w r it t e n n a r r a t iv e o f th e Meyer and S o b ie sz e k v id e o ta p e. The v id e o ta p e i s d e sc r ib e d by Meyer and S o b ie sz e k as fo llo w s * Two c h ild r e n, aged 17 m onths, w ere s e l e c t e d f o r th e e x p er im en t. One was m ale and th e o th e r fe m a le, b u t b oth were ch o sen a s c h ild r e n whose s e x co u ld n o t be c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d by t y p i c a l a d u lt s. O p e r a tio n a lly t h i s means th a t th e c h ild r e n b o th had m ed iu m -len gth h a ir c u ts and were d r e s s e d in " n eu tra l" c l o t h i n g. P r e t e s t i n g showed th a t about eq u a l numbers o f a d u lt s, f o r each c h i l d, c o r r e c t ly and in c o r r e c t l y g u e sse d i t s s e x. A h a lf-h o u r v id e o ta p e was made o f each c h i l d p la y in g w ith a number o f to y s i n a la b o r a to r y room under th e d i r e c t i o n o f an e x p e r im e n te r. The to y s w ere ab out e q u a lly d is t r ib u t e d b etw een "boys" ( e. g., a wooden hammer) and " g ir ls " (a d o ll) t o y s. Each v id e o ta p e was e d it e d to a segm ent betw een 10 and 15 m in u tes lo n g, show ing th e c h ild in a f a i r l y w ide range o f p la y a c t i v i t i e s ( , p.. A d e s c r ip t i v e w r it t e n n a r r a tio n o f th e v id e o ta p e was p rep a r e d. Two e x p e r ie n c e d o b se r v e r s in d e p e n d e n tly view ed th e v id e o ta p e s and w h ile v ie w in g d e s c r ib e d th e b e h a v io r s th e y o b serv ed i n t o a ta p e r e c o r d e r. The ta p e r e c o r d in g s were th en tr a n s c r ib e d in t o two typ ed fo rm s. The

53 ex p er im en ter th e n com bined th e two t r a n s c r ip t s and compared th e r e s u lt a n t t e x t w ith th e v id e o ta p e f o r a c c u r a c y. The f i n a l w r it t e n n a r r a t iv e s were m o d ifie d so th a t se x r e la t e d pronouns were n o t in c lu d e d. A ll s u b j e c t iv e comments were d e le t e d. In o rd er to v e r i f y th a t th e n a r r a t iv e s were u n d ersta n d a b le and u n is e x in n a tu r e, th e y were d is t r ib u t e d to 16 a d u lts f o r r e a d in g. These a d u lt v o lu n t e e r s were ch o sen on th e c r i t e r i a t h a t th e y had had exp osu re to c h ild r e n o f on e- to tw o -y ea r s o f a g e. The v o lu n te e r s were ask ed to read one n a r r a t iv e and resp o n d to i t in term s o f th e se x o f th e c h ild b e in g d e s c r ib e d, t h e i r a b i l i t y to u n d ersta n d th e n a r r a t iv e, and t h e i r a b i l i t y to v i s u a l i z e th e in t e r a c t i o n s w hich were d e s c r ib e d. The r e s u l t s in d ic a t e d t h a t th e n a r r a t iv e s co u ld be u sed to d e s c r ib e e i t h e r a boy or g i r l and th a t th e y were u n d er sta n d a b le (S e e A ppendix A f o r c o p ie s o f th e n a r r a t iv e s and d e t a i l s o f th e v e r i f i c a t i o n r e s u l t s ). The Dependent V a r ia b le R a ters were ask ed to r a t e th e c h ild r e n th e y o b serv ed or read about on an e i g h t - p o i n t r a t in g s c a l e. The ite m s on th e s c a le r e f l e c t e d t y p i c a l s e x - r o le a t t r i b u t e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e x p r e s s iv e and in str u m e n ta l c o m p e te n c ie s. The o r i g in a l s c a l e was d ev elo p e d and u sed by Meyer and S o b ie sz e k ( ) and S o b ie s z e k (1977) and p ro v id ed th e model f o r a s im ila r s c a l e d ev elo p ed f o r u se in t h i s s tu d y.

54 42 The f i r s t s t e p i n th e developm ent o f the in stru m en t was to e s t a b lis h the s e x - r o le a t t r ib u t e s to be in c lu d e d. Drawing from p rev io u s l i t e r a t u r e in which s e x - r o le s t e r e o ty p in g in fo r m a tio n was o b ta in ed (R o sen k ra n tz, e t a l., 1968s Meyer and S o b ie sze k 1972( S o b ie sz e k 1977; Chasen and W einberg 1975; Condry and Condry ), a l i s t o f 72 d e s c r ip t iv e words t y p i c a l l y lin k e d to e x p r e s s iv e a n d /o r in stru m e n ta l co m p eten cies was co m p lied. In clu d ed in t h is l i s t o f words were the words used i n the Meyer and S o b ie sze k (1972) stu d y. In a d d itio n to s e x - r o le lin k e d words, non s e x - r o le lin k e d words which were co n sid e r ed p la ceb o or n o n -ste r e o ty p e d words were in c lu d e d. In ord er to be a ssu red the words were in f a c t s t e r e o t y p ic or n o n -s te r e o ty p ic and th a t th e y were a p p lic a b le to th e b eh a v io r o f a 17 m onth-old c h ild, the l i s t was su b je c te d to r e v ie w. A d u lts e x p er ien ce d w ith th e a c t io n s and b eh a v io rs o f 17 m onth-old c h ild r e n were asked to respond to th e a f o r e m entioned l i s t o f words in term s o f th e words' g en er a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y to a 17 m onth-old c h ild and a ls o the words' more s p e c i f i c r e fe r e n c e to e i t h e r a boy or g i r l (See Appendix B fo r th e C h ild B ehavior Word C h e c k lis t as i t was p r e se n te d to r e sp o n d e n ts ). The resp o n d en ts were 3*+ te a c h e r s a n d /o r w orkers from s i x Columbus, Ohio day ca re c e n te r s w hich e n r o lle d in f a n t s and t o d d le r s. The v o lu n te e r s were asked i f th ey w ished to p a r t ic ip a t e in th e developm ent o f a r a t in g s c a le f o r c h ild r e n 's b e h a v io r. The word l i s t,

55 as well as a consent form, was filled out at the volunteer's convenience and took approximately fifteen minutes to complete. The nature of the list was a source of concern to some 43 participants. The alternatives provided for choosing applicability of the word to the sex of the child gave only two categories--boy or girl. Several participants expressed c o n c e r n that there was not an either category. The concern was manifested in several ways. Some participants did not wish to complete the form. Others left the items which they believed applicable to both sexes blank or checked both male and female. Although the forced choice between girl or boy may have made some participants u n c o m fortable. the ways in which they resolved the conflict were accounted for in the coding and thus provided information as to the sex-role applicability of the words. Instructions for completing the checklist of words were conveyed to the day care workers both in writing and by verbal direction. Two specific directions were relevant to understanding the results. First, in choosing the sex applicability of the words, participants were requested to respond in terms of, "If you HAD to say one or the other, would you say boy or girl as more likely to be described by the word". Secondly, participants were requested not to take a lot of time thinking before responding. Their first reactions were requested.

56 The l i s t o f 72 words were arran ged i n th r e e d i f f e r e n t random o r d e r s r e s u l t i n g i n th r e e form s o f th e same l i s t o f w ords. A p p roxim ately an eq u a l number o f p a r t ic ip a n t s r e c e iv e d each form o f th e word l i s t. The th r e e form s w ere em ployed to p r o v id e c o n t r o l f o r th e e f f e c t o f th e p a r t i c i p a n ts ' r e sp o n d in g to th e words b eca u se o f t h e i r o rd er o f p r e s e n t a t io n (i.e., alw ays h a v in g th e word a g g r e s s iv e f i r s t, re sp o n se f a t ig u e toward th e end o f th e l i s t ). C oding o f th e r e s p o n s e s from th e word l i s t f e l l in one o f fo u r c a t e g o r i e s. The c a t e g o r ie s in c lu d e d! word n o t a p p lic a b le to y e a r o l d / b o y / g i r l / word a p p lic a b le to e i t h e r boy o r g i r l. The l a s t c a te g o r y was u sed when a p a r t ic ip a n t l e f t th e s e x c h o ic e b lank or ch ecked b oth boy and g i r l. Analysis of the p a r t icipants responses included frequency counts and percentage figures for each choice on each item. Table 9 in Appendix B gives the breakdown in frequency of response and percentage of total response for each i t e m. C o n s id e r a tio n f o r th e in c l u s i o n o f words on th e f i n a l s c a l e was g iv e n to th e number o f r e sp o n se s r e la t e d to th e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f th e word to a l y ea r o ld c h i l d. In a d d i t i o n, r e s p o n s e s r e l a t e d to th e words* r e fe r e n c e to m ale or fem ale c h ild r e n w ere a ls o c o n s id e r e d. The a p p l i c a b i l i t y r e s p o n s e s were c o n s id e r e d f i r s t. I f th e n o n - a p p lic a b i lit y was ch o se n by 23 p e r c e n t or more o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s, th e

57 45 item was not con sid ered any fu r th er fo r in c lu s io n on the f in a l instrum ent. This meant th at a t l e a s t 77 p ercen t o f the sample f e l t the words were a p p lica b le to a 1^ y e a r -o ld c h ild. N ext, p a r tic ip a n ts ' resp o n ses to the words as a p p lica b le to male or fem ale ch ild re n were examined. The d e c is io n to c a te g o r iz e and in clu d e words on the f in a l instrum ent as male or fem ale was based on two c r i t e r i a. F ir s t, the perce n t o f p a r tic ip a n t resp on ses in terms o f male and fem ale c a te g o r ie s was co n sid ered. The d iffe r e n c e s in resp onses to words by sex ranged from 1,3 to 4.4- tim es. For example, fo r the stim u lu s words " fe e lin g s e a s i ly hurt" 4.4 tim es as many respondents f e l t the word was a fem ale ra th er than a male r e la te d word. The second c r i t e r i a was the s u b je c tiv e but informed op in ion o f the experim enter, an opinion based upon a s y n th e s is o f the resea rch and th e o r e tic a l lit e r a t u r e. Table 10 appears in Appendix B and summarizes Table 9 by showing th e percen t and number o f p a r tic ip a n t resp onses fo r those words which were chosen by the experim enter fo r in c lu s io n on the f in a l in stru m ent. Table 10 p resen ts the response freq u en cies and p ercen tages fo r the boy, g i r l, and n eu tral words which had been ad ju sted to account fo r d if f e r e n t i a l number o f resp on d en ts. S p e c i f i c a l l y, the percen tages given i n Table 10 are fo r th ose p a r tic ip a n ts who responded e ith e r boy or g i r l ra th er than fo r p a r tic ip a n ts who responded in any o f the four c a te g o r ie s. The s e x -r o le r e la te d words were as fo llo w s: F e m a le --p le a sa n t, em otional, f e e lin g s

58 U-6 e a s il y hurt, dependent, a f f e c t io n a t e, cuddly; K ale in q u is i t i v e, adventurous, a s s e r t iv e, a c t iv e, stron g p e r s o n a lity, a g g re ssiv e ; N eu tra l s o c ia b le, demanding, cute fr ie n d ly, p o s s e s s iv e, shy. Once the s ix m ale, s ix fem ale s e x -r o le r e la te d a d je c t iv e s and s ix non s e x -r o le r e la te d a d je c tiv e s were i d e n t i f i ed, they were converted in to item s fo r use in the r a tin g sc a le which was named the C hild Behavior Rating S c a le. An item c o n s is te d o f each a d je c tiv e paired w ith i t s absence ( i. e., s o c ia b le, not so c ia b le ; a c tiv e, not a c t iv e ). The a d je c tiv e was p laced a t one end o f a one to e ig h t s c a le and the absence a d je c tiv e was p laced a t the oth er. For example, a c tiv e / / / / / / / /n o t a c t iv e The format o f the r a tin g s c a le was in flu en ced by readin g s o f G u ilford (195*0* S p e c if ic a lly, the p o s it iv e o f each word was p laced a t the same end o f the s c a le. This c o n sis te n c y was thought to be l e s s con fu sin g fo r respond en ts. A lso, the s c a le was marked from one through e ig h t w ith the in te n t o f c o lla p s in g or dropping the two end p o in ts. So, anyone marking 2 as a response to a behavior would a c tu a lly be g iv in g a 1 mark. This c o lla p s in g of extreme sco res was done because ra ter s are not l i k e l y to mark the extreme numbers. the c e n ter o f the s c a le. Thus, the marks would c lu s t e r in By changing the s c a lin g, a wider spread o f r a tin g s was ob tain ed.

59 47 In order to provide control for the effects of rater fatigue and response set, three forms of the scale were made. The difference among the forms was merely in the ordering of the items. The raters responded to the items by circling the number corresponding to their perceptions about the child based upon their observation or reading. The raters had no difficulty using the scale and completed the ratings rapidly in all of the experimental conditions. Appendix C contains an example of the Child Behavior Rating Scale. Appendix D consists of the consent form prefacing all rating scales. PROCEDURES Sixty-four female raters who had observation-learning experience were identified and contacted to volunteer to participate in this study. The procedure used to contact these raters varied since three universities were involved. Pages contain descriptions of the procedures used in each setting. The explanation of the study given to potential raters is in written form in Appendix E. As can be noted from this explanation, the true nature of the study hypotheses was not divulged to the raters until the study was completed. No rater questioned the purpose of the study after completing the experiment, thus indicating they were verbalizing no awareness of the hypotheses under examination.

60 ^ 8 Once an in d iv id u a l agreed to p a r tic ip a te, a date and time were arranged fo r the experim ent. R aters were g iv en a reminder telephone c a l l the n ig h t b efore they were to p a r tic ip a te in the experim ent. The t o t a l time required to c o l l e c t the data was two months. From September 15 to September , 18 r a te r s com pleted the experim ent a t The U n iv e r s ity o f M issou ri. Twenty-four r a te r s from The Ohio S ta te U n iv e r s ity p a r t ic ip a ted between October 6 and October 31 * Twenty-two r a te r s from O tterb ein C o lleg e v o lu n teered th e ir s e r v ic e s from November 3 to November 8. Although the rooms used to conduct the experim ent v a ried in lo c a tio n, they were s im ila r in most r e s p e c ts. The rooms were p r iv a te and in clu d ed a door, which was shut during experim ental s e s s io n s. A ta b le or desk was provided fo r the r a te r. The experim enter remained in the room during the experim ent w ith her back to the r a te r. During th is time the experim enter was engaged in stu d y -ty p e a c t i v i t i e s such as reading or w r itin g. A vid eotap e playback machine and t e l e v i s i o n were in the room fo r both the w r itte n narrat iv e and vid eotap e tra n sm issio n c o n d itio n s. However, during the w r itte n n a rra tiv e c o n d itio n the machines were pushed in to a corner so as to be u n o b tru siv e. I n s tr u c tio n s to the r a te r s were in two form s. F ir s t the r a tin g s c a le was preceded by typed d ir e c t io n s. Secondly, the d ir e c tio n s were a ls o r e c ite d by a fem ale who

61 49 was n aive to the study hypotheses v ia tape reco rd in g. The r a te r lis t e n e d to the tape recorded in s tr u c tio n s as she read along on her p r o to c o l. The in s tr u c tio n s and procedures v a ried s l i g h t l y fo r the w r itte n n a rra tiv e and vid eotap e tra n sm issio n c o n d itio n s. The procedures fo r the two co n d itio n s are g iv en in Appendix P. Two v id eo ta p es or two w r itte n n a r r a tiv e s were ev a lu ated by each r a te r. Each r a te r saw or read about the same two c h ild r e n (A and B ). There was a d iffe r e n c e, however, in the d e s c r ip tio n r a te r s re ce iv ed fo r the c h ild r e n. The sex la b e l a p p lied to each c h ild v a ried w ith any one r a te r r e c e iv in g one o f the fo llo w in g gender cues fo r c h ild A and B: m ale, fem ale; fem ale, male; c h ild, c h ild. Because there may be an order e f f e c t caused by r a te r s always se e in g or reading about the same c h ild f i r s t, h a lf o f the r a te r s saw or read about c h ild A f i r s t and h a lf saw or read about c h ild B f i r s t. To summarize the p o s s ib le com binations (se x la b e l a p p lied to c h ild A and B, tra n sm issio n co n d itio n by which in form ation about c h ild A and B was conveyed, and order o f p r e se n ta tio n o f c h ild A and B) o f s tim u li to which r a te r s were exposed, see Table 11 in Appendix G. There were 16 d iff e r e n t groups to which r a te r s were randomly a ssig n e d, as in d ic a te d by the Group Number column. The male, fem ale, c h ild la b e ls w ith in the Table in d ic a te what gender cue was g iv en to the r a te r. For example, i f a r a te r were a ssig n ed to Group 11 th e fo llo w in g even ts would occur*

62 50 The ra ter would read a w ritten narrative about c h ild B and would be to ld c h ild B was a male. A fter ra tin g th at n a rra tiv e, the r a te r would then read the narrative fo r c h ild A and be to ld th a t c h ild A was a fem ale. Each of the 16 groups were assigned four r a te r s. DATA ANALYSIS The data from the 18-item Child Behavior Rating Scale (CBRS) were organized in two ways. F ir s t the average of the male se x -r o le re la te d item s and the average o f the female s e x -r o le r e la te d item s appearing on the CBRS were compared fo r system atic variance among the co n d itio n s of the study. For example, i f a c h ild were la b eled male, would th a t c h ild be rated higher on the male se x -r o le re la te d item s than on the female se x -r o le item s as compared to when th a t ch ild was la b ele d fem ale. A nalysis o f variance on d ifferen ce scores was used for these comparisons. Mean sco res, as w ell as standard d ev ia tio n s, and standard error o f the means were provided to aid d iscu ssio n of the a n a ly sis o f variance r e s u lt s. In a d d itio n to the above comparisons, an o v era ll p ersp ectiv e o f se x -r o le stereo ty p in g by the ra ters was obtained by combining the item s in to an index. Meyer and Sobieszek (1972) derived a m asculine s e x -r o le a ttr ib u tio n index, a procedure which was used in t h is a n a ly sis. The ra tin g s given a c h ild on each of the female ro le a d je c tiv e s was added and combined w ith the in verted ra tin g s the raters

63 gave the c h ild on the male ro le a d je c tiv e s. For example, i f two item s were rated as fo llo w s: a g g r e ssiv e /A / / / / / not aggressive (l dependent / / / / / //A not dependent V67 The M asculine A ttrib u te Score (MAS) would be 6 fo r aggress ion sin ce i t i s a male s e x -r o le a ttr ib u te and 6 fo r not dependent sin ce dependent i s a female se x -r o le a ttr ib u te. Combining a l l the s e x -r o le item s then, the h ig h est score a given c h ild could receiv e would be the number o f se x -r o le re la ted item s tim es 6 (12 x 6 = 72) and the low est score would be the number o f se x -r o le r e la te d item s tim es 1 (12 x 1 = 1 2 ). The former rep resen tin g the maximum m asculine score, whereas the l a t t e r represents the most fem inine sco re. A nalysis o f variance was performed on d ifferen ce scores ca lcu la te d from the Masculine A ttrib u te Scores to t e s t fo r main e f f e c t s due to transm ission con d ition and sex la b e l ap p lied to a c h ild as w ell as th e ir in te r a c tio n.

64 CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION This experim ental study was designed to in v e s tig a te p o te n tia l research w orkers se x -r o le r e la te d ra tin g s of c h ild r e n s behavior under con d ition s where a ch ild was la b eled by sex and the c h ild 's behavior was communicated to the ra ter by videotape or w ritten n a rra tiv e. Ratings were provided by female ra ters who were en ro lled in c o lle g e le v e l c h ild development courses in which observation s k i l l s were learned and p ra ctic ed. The ra ters volunteered approximately 3 minutes at th e ir convenience to ra te two c h ild r e n s behaviors. The sex la b e l given the ch ild ren and the communication mode by which the c h ild r e n 's behavior was transm itted varied depending upon random assignm ent. The Child Behavior Rating Scale was used to obtain se x -r o le re la ted ra tin g s of the c h ild r e n 's behavior and provided the data for a n a ly sis. The fin d in gs of th is study are presented in three s e c tio n s. The sample is described in the f i r s t s e c tio n. S ectio n Two provides an exp lanation of two p rea n a ly sis approaches used to organize and prepare the ra tin g scores fo r a n a ly s is. The research hypotheses and fin d in g s rela ted to those hypotheses from the p ersp ectiv es o f the two 52

65 approaches d escrib ed in S e c tio n Two comprise the th ird s e c tio n. DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLE The 64 r a te r s p a r tic ip a tin g in th is study were fem ale c o lle g e stu d en ts e n r o lle d in undergraduate Home Economics c h ild development cou rses in which o b serv a tio n s k i l l s were learn ed and p r a c tic e d. Table 1 provides a breakdown o f the sample by number and percen t in to various d e s c r ip tiv e c a t e g o r ie s. The age o f the r a te r s ranged from 17 to 42 w ith the mean age b ein g 20. One r a te r was 42 years o f age w ith the remainded o f the r a te r s being between the ages o f 17 and 24, Two of the r a te r s were p a r e n ts. F ie ld s o f c o lle g e study pursued by the r a te r s were c a teg o r ize d in three ways. The f i r s t category had 23 ra te r s and was d efin ed as Home Economics w ith s p e c ia liz a t io n in c h ild and fam ily s tu d ie s. The second category was comp rised o f Home Economics majors not s p e c ia liz in g in c h ild and fam ily s tu d ie s and in clu d ed 13 r a t e r s. The two Home Economics c a te g o r ie s rep resen ted 5^.2 percen t o f the sample. T w enty-eight r a te r s rep r esen tin g other f i e l d s o f study o u t sid e Home Economics made up the th ird ca teg o ry. There were no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e s when the means o f r a te r s in variou s f i e l d s o f study were compared in r e la t io n to the research h ypotheses. R aters were e n r o lle d a t three u n i v e r s i t i e s. E ighteen

66 54 TABLE 1 NUMBER AND PERCENT OF SIXTY-FOUR RATERS IN DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERISTIC CATEGORIES D e sc rip tiv e C h a r a c te r is tic s Number P ercent Age Mean age = Major Home Econom ics/c hild and Family Area Home Econom ics/o ther Areas Other F ie ld s o f Study Parent Yes No School A ttending M issouri U n iv e r s ity The Ohio S ta te U n iv e r s ity O tterb ein C ollege

67 55 students from the U n iv ersity o f M issouri provided 28.1 percent o f the sample. Twenty-two students from O tterbein C ollege represented 3^*^ percent o f the sample. The Ohio S tate U n iv ersity students represented 37*5 percent of the sample or 29 r a te r s. No s ig n ific a n t d iffer en ces were found when the means of ra ters from the three u n iv e r s itie s were compared in r e la t io n to the research hypotheses. INITIAL DATA TRANSFORMATION Each su b ject rated two ch ild ren by f i l l i n g out a Child Behavior Rating Scale (CBRS) fo r each c h ild. were c a lcu la ted from each s u b je c t's r a tin g s. Several scores For each c h ild rated by a su b ject a to ta l Masculine A ttrib u te Score (MAS) was obtained (see page 51 fo r MAS c a lc u la tio n ). In addition, from the ra tin g s given for each c h ild on the CBRS an average ra tin g of the male se x -r o le re la ted item s and an average of the female s e x -r o le re la ted item s was computed. In order to make comparisons usin g these r a tin g s, d ifferen ce scores were ca lcu la te d. D ifferen ce scores were used in th is a n a ly sis to assure that independence of the ra tin g s was m aintained. The p o s s ib ili t y o f dependence o f ra tin g s i s apparent sin ce repeated measures were used ( i. e., each su b ject rated two c h ild r e n ). Figure 1 i s a graphic rep resen ta tio n of the experim ental design and an exp lanation o f th is design w ill f a c i l i t a t e understanding of the d ifferen ce score c a lc u la tio n s. The two

68 PLEASE NOTE: Print on some pages is small and indistinct. Filmed in th best possible way. UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS.

69 C0»1 UN ICATION HOUE SEX LABEL FEMALE LABF.) Tape of Tape of Tape of CHILD LABEL Shown 1st Shown 2nd Shown 1st Shown 2nd Shown Shown Shown Shown I fit 2nd 2nd Shown Shown Shown Shawn 1st 2nd Shown Ifit Shown 2nd Shown 1pt Shown 2nd 2B 2A N arrativ e of N arrativ e of N arrativ e of N arrativ e of N arrativ e of N arrativ e of N arrativ e of N arrativ e of Read 1st Read 2nd Read 2nd Read 1st Read 2nd Read 1st 10B 10A h a ISA 1ZB ISA ]4A UB *Y r e p r e s e n ts Y s u b je c t's ratinr S, 1» group number. J - ch ild A or R to he rated FI Cl IRE 1 OVERALL PESICN LAYOUT SHOWINC EXPECTED VALUES OF DEPENDENT MEASURE <Y(^ FOR EACH DEStCN CELL

70 57 rows o f the fig u r e are d efin ed as vid eotap e and w r itte n n a rra tiv e communication modes. The four columns are d efined as male, fem ale, ch ild ^ and child^. sex l a b e l s. S u b jects were randomly a ssig n ed to the experim ental co n d itio n s and are rep resen ted by the Y.. value w ith in the c e l l s where: Y = s u b j e c t's r a tin g o f a c h ild, i = the group to which the su b je c t was randomly a ssig n ed (see Table 4 in Appendix G fo r d e t a i l s ), j = the c h ild (A or B) to be rated by th e su b je c t. Because two ch ild re n were rated by each s u b je c t, there are two Y v alu es fo r each su b je c t. The two Y v a lu es g iv en by the same su b jec t can be id e n t i f ie d by the i value in the Yi j expressi n Y1B^* R eferrin g to Figure 1, the r a tin g o f a su b je c t Y^A would have been g iv en in the v id e o tape co n d itio n, when c h ild A was rated f i r s t and was g iv en a male sex la b e l. Y^B rep resen ts the s u b je c t's second r a t in g and would have been e lic ite d in the v id eotap e co n d itio n when c h ild B was rated second and was given a fem ale sex l a b e l. Note th a t the r a tin g s Y^A, Y^B fo r a su b jec t are comparab le in terms o f experim ental c o n d itio n s to Y1A, Y1B ex cep t fo r the sex la b e l a p p lied ( i. e., both su b je c ts saw v id e o tapes and rated c h ild A f i r s t and B secon d ). In a d d itio n, su b je c ts ' r a tin g s Y^A» Y^B and Y13B are eclui valetvt Y1A, Y1B and Y^A* Y5B r e s Pe c 't iv e l y except fo r the communic a t io n mode c o n d itio n s. In order to make the comparisons n ecessa ry to examine the q u estio n s o f t h is stud y, d iffe r e n c e sco res were c a lc u la te d between th ese dependent v a lu es.

71 58 The fo llo w in g two su b sec tio n s d escrib e how d iffe r e n c e sc o res were c a lc u la te d fo r use in the two types o f a n a ly ses performed on the data. The f i r s t s e c tio n ex p la in s the d e r i v a tio n o f d iffe r e n c e sco res when u sin g the average o f the male and the average o f the fem ale s e x -r o le r e la te d item s. The second s e c t io n dem onstrates how d iffe r e n c e scores were c a lc u la te d when u sin g the MAS. Difference Score Calculation Using Average of Male Items and Average of Female Items For each CBRS com pleted by a su b je c t an average of the s ix male item s and an average o f the s ix fem ale item s in clu d ed w ith in the s c a le were c a lc u la te d. As exp lain ed on page 4-6, each of th e se item s was p resen ted to su b je c ts w ith the a t tr ib u t e given on the l e f t sid e o f the s c a le ( i. e., a g g r e ssiv e ) and the absence o f the a ttr ib u te ( i. e., not a g g r e ssiv e ) on the r ig h t s id e. I f a su b je c t thought a c h ild e x h ib ite d a c h a r a c te r is tic a t a high l e v e l, she may g iv e the c h ild a 1 r a tin g. I f a su b je c t f e l t the c h ild showed l e s s of an a t t r ib u t e, a ra tin g o f 6 might be g iv en. C onsequently, when averaging a l l the r a tin g s fo r male item s or a l l the r a tin g s fo r fem ale item s, an average score o f 2 would in d ic a te a h ig h er le v e l o f the averaged item s than a 5* The averaged male and fem ale s e x -r o le r e la te d item s were used to c a lc u la te d iffe r e n c e s c o r e s. The d iffe r e n c e sco res were subm itted to a n a ly s is o f variance in order to t e s t the

72 59 research h y p o th eses. The c a lc u la tio n o f d iffe r e n c e sco res i s ex p la in ed s te p -b y -s te p u sin g a m odified v e r sio n o f Figure 1. F igure 2 appears below and shows the average male item sc o res and the average fem ale item sc o res th a t would be p resen t i f s e x -r o le ste r e o ty p in g was being exp ressed through the r a t i n g s. For exam ple, fo r a l l the r a tin g s made under the male la b e l c o n d itio n the average o f a l l the male item s was 2 and the average o f the fem ale item s was 5» The c h ild l a b e l s, on the other hand, would show no d iffe r e n c e in the averages between male and fem ale item s. Male Label Female Label C hild Label C h ild, Label Average Scores Average Scores Average Scores Average Scores Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female FIGURE 2 PART 1: EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENCE SCORE CALCULATIONS USING AVERAGE MALE SCORE AND AVERAGE FEMALE SCORE WHEN SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPING IS AFFECTING SUBJECTS' RATINGS N ext, d iffe r e n c e sc o res were obtained by su b tra c tin g the average o f the male item s from the average o f the fem ale item s in each sex la b e l c o n d itio n. Figure 3 d isp la y s th ese d iffe r e n c e s.

73 60 Male Female Label! Label f A M S A F S 2 5 A M S A F S 5 2 Childm Label A M s A F s 3 3 C h ild - Label A M S A F S = = = = 0 FIGURE 3 PART 2: EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENCE SCORE CALCULATIONS USING AVERAGE MALE SCORE AND AVERAGE FEMALE SCORE WHEN SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPING IS AFFECTING SUBJECTS* RATINGS Because the average male score and the average fem ale score in the male la b e le d group were made by the same su b je c ts under d if f e r in g sex la b e l c o n d itio n s, the sco res are not independent. The same s it u a tio n e x i s t s fo r the c h ild and c h ild - la b e le d c o n d itio n s. In order to m f account fo r t h is dependence, d iffe r e n c e sco res were again taken. This time the male la b e l d iffe r e n c e sco res were su b tracted from the fem ale la b e le d d iffe r e n c e sc o res to give a d iffe r e n c e score fo r su b je c ts who were g iv en a male or fem ale sex la b e l fo r the c h ild they ra ted. The c h ilc ^ score was a ls o su b tracted from the ch ild ^ score to g iv e a d iffe r e n c e score fo r su b je c ts who were not g iv en a sex l a b el fo r the c h ild they r a te d. Figure 4 d e p ic ts the d i f f e r ence sc o res th a t would be used in the s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t performed to examine the resea rch q u e stio n s.

74 61 j ! Male j. Label Female Label ; Child Label i C h ild - ; Label1 i A A A A A A A A \ M F M F M F ; m f \ S S S S S S s s i j 2-5 = = * 0 o 'N I o n! Told Sex Told Child D ifferen ce Score D ifferen ce Score j (-3 ) - (+3) = -6 ( 0 ) - ( 0) = 0 FIGURE k FART 3 : EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENCE SCORE CALCULATIONS USING AVERAGE MALE SCORE AND AVERAGE FEMALE SCORE WHEN SEX ROLE STEREOTYPING IS AFFECTING SUBJECTS' RATINGS D ifferen ce Score C a lcu la tio n Using M asculine A ttrib u te Score The M asculine A ttrib u te Scale (MAS) explained on page 50 was a to ta l score fo r each su b je c t's ra tin g of a c h ild. The higher the MAS the more m asculine the r a tin g. Using the same format as the previous su b sectio n, Figure 5 represen ts MAS ra tin g s r e f le c t in g se x -r o le ster eo ty p in g in the se x -la b e l co n d itio n s o f the experim ent.

75 62 i Male! Label Female Label Chile! Label111 C h ild - 1 Label1 j i MA MA MA KA 1 Score Score Score Score ) i ; j j FIGURE 5 PART l i EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENCE SCORE CALCULATIONS USING MASCULINE ATTRIBUTE SCORE WHEN SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPING IS AFFECTING SUBJECT*S RATINGS In order to account fo r the dependence of the male la b e l and female la b e l ra tin g s and the ch ild ^ and child^. r a tin g s, d iffe r e n c e scores were c a lc u la te d. (See Figure 6) The to ld sex d ifferen ce score and to ld c h ild d ifferen ce scores were then used in the s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly sis to examine the e f f e c t of sex la b e l on su b jec ts' se x -r o le r e la te d r a tin g s. j Male! Label Female Label Chilcl Label C hild-! Label1 i i MA MA MA MA i i Score Score Score Score i j j Told Sex Told C]hild i j D ifferen ce D ifferen ce j I Score fo r MAS Score fo r MAS = = 0 FIGURE 6 PART 2: EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENCE SCORE CALCULATIONS USING MASCULINE ATTRIBUTE SCORES WHEN SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPING IS AFFECTING SUBJECT'S RATINGS

76 S e x -r o le ste r e o ty p in g was in e f f e c t in t h is example and was expressed by the p o s it iv e d iffe r e n c e score fo r the male 63 la b e l MAS minus the fem ale la b e l MAS. I f the sco re were -4 0, then co u n terstereo ty p in g ( i. e., fem ale d escrib ed c h ild a ttr ib u te d a h igher m asculine r a tin g than male d escrib ed c h ild ) would be in e f f e c t. The non-sex la b e le d d iffe r e n c e score o f zero p rovid es a b a sis fo r comparing the sex la b e l d iffe r e n c e sc o re. In th is example the zero len d s support to the h y p oth esis th a t sex la b e l and not an u n id e n tifie d v a r ia b le a ffe c te d the r a tin g s. STATISTICAL ANALYSES RELATED TO HYPOTHESES The hypotheses o f th is study were te s te d ap plying two-way a n a ly s is o f variance to d iffe r e n c e s c o r e s. Each o f the two approaches used to t e s t the hypotheses w i l l be d iscu ssed in turn. A n alysis o f varian ce summary ta b le s as w ell as ta b le s d isp la y in g means, standard d e v ia tio n s and standard error o f the means w i l l accompany the verbal ex p la n a tio n o f the fin d in g s. A n a ly sis o f Average Male Item and Female Item D iffe ren ce Scores H ypothesis 1. The sex la b e l a p p lied to a c h ild w i l l have an e f f e c t on r a t e r 's s e x -r o le r e la te d r a tin g s o f a c h ild 's behavior. The a n a ly s is of varian ce on the d iffe r e n c e sc o res fo r the male and fem ale stereo ty p ed a ttr ib u te s rev ea led no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e s in r a tin g s due to the sex la b e l a p p lied to a c h ild (se e Table 2). As can be seen in

77 64 TABLE 6 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR EFFECT OF SEX LABEL AND COMMUNICATION MODE CONDITIONS ON RATER DIFFERENCE SCORES FOR THE AVERAGE OF MALE ITEMS MINUS THE AVERAGE OF FEMALE ITEMS WITHIN THE CHILD BEHAVIOR RATING SCALE Source o f Variance d. f S.S. M.S. F Told Sex Communication Mode Told Sex X Communication *0*5 Error T otal For p <.0 5, F=4.00 Table 7. the means o f the d iffe r e n c e sco res were extrem ely c lo s e. As a d d itio n a l evid en ce, the sm all standard error o f the means (. 33* *36) su g g est the d iffe r e n c e between these means was c lo s e to zero. A c o n s is te n t although not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e was noted between the male and fem ale item s. Table 8 i l l u s t r a t e s the average o f the male item s and the average o f the fem ale item s fo r each independent v a r ia b le. For any o f the s e x -la b e l c o n d itio n s {c h ild, m ale, fem a le), r a te r s rated the male s e x -r o le r e la te d item s as being p resen t in the c h ild to a g r e a te r e x ten t than the fem ale s e x -r o le r e la te d item s. Because t h is d iffe r e n c e was

78 65 TABLE 3 MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN OF RATER DIFFERENCE SCORES FOR THE AVERAGE OF MALE ITEMS MINUS THE AVERAGE OF FEMALE ITEMS WITHIN THE CHILD BEHAVIOR RATING SCALE BY SEX LABEL, COMMUNICATION MODE, SEX LABEL X COMMUNICATION MODE Standard Standard Error of Variables n Mean Deviation Mean Sex Label Told Sex Told Child Communication Mode Videotape Written Narrative Sex Label X Communication Mode Told Sex X Videotape Told Sex X Written Narrative Told Child X Videotape Told Child X Written Narrative Overall Mean of Difference Scores * *

79 66 TABLE 4 MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, STANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN FOR RATINGS OF THE AVERAGE OF MALE ITEMS AND THE AVERAGE OF FEMALE ITEMS VrtTHIN THE CHILD BEHAVIOR RATING SCALE BY SEX LABEL AND COMMUNICATION MODE Standard V ariables n Mean D eviation Standard grror Average of Male Items Sex Label Male 32 2.?8 1.17,21 Female Child 64 2, Communication Mode Videotape W ritten N arrative O verall Mean o f Average of Male Items Average of Female Items Sex Label Male Female Child Communication Mode Videotape W ritten N arrative O verall Kean of Average of Female Items

80 observed in the child label conditions as well as the male and female label conditions, the difference in ratings appear to be attributed to the particular words used for the male and female items in the CBRS. If the child label group were not provided as a basis for comparing the male and female sex labels, the results may have been erroneously interpreted as indicating a slight amount of counterstereotyping (i.e., when a female labeled child is rated as having male attributes to a greater extent than the female attributes). Other stu d ie s, which required su b jects to respond to the a p p lic a b ility of words to male or female ch ild ren, found the su b jec ts' responses to d if f e r in r e la tio n to the sex o f the c h ild. Chasen (197^)» for example, found prekindergarten female teachers to b e lie v e that aggression was n ative to males and p a s s iv ity was n a tiv e to fem ales. In ad d ition, the p r e te s tin g o f words for th is study revealed th a t day care workers id e n tifie d c e r ta in s e x -r o le re la te d words as d e sc r ip tiv e o f male or female ch ild ren. For these aforem entioned r e s u lts, however, the responses required o f su b jects were obtained u sin g a q uestion n aire type form. In the experim ental s e ttin g of th is study, the responses were e l i c i t e d when su b jects rated an actu al c h ild in a s p e c ific s itu a tio n. The d ifferen ce in su b ject responses between these two types of stu d ie s may have been a r e s u lt o f the two procedures.

81 In the stu d ie s o f Broverman e t a l. (1970), Etaugh and Hughes (1975) and L e v itin and Chananie (1972), su b je c ts responded to w r itte n d e sc r ip tio n s o f c h ild r e n. The p rocedures o f th ese s tu d ie s were s im ila r. S u b jects responded u sin g a dependent measure which in clu d ed stim u lu s words as was required in t h is stu d y. One d iffe r e n c e between th ese stu d ie s and t h is study was the age group o f the in d iv id u a ls who were ra ted. A dults were rated in the Broverman (1970) s t u d ie s, primary sch ool ch ild re n were rated in the Etaugh and Hughes (1975) and L e v itin and Chananie (1972) s tu d ie s. Perhaps the young age o f the ch ild re n (1? months) rated in t h is study had an e f f e c t on r a t e r s resp onses where they f e l t th a t a t t h is age there was l i t t l e to d if f e r e n t i a t e the two se x e s. I f there were d iffe r e n c e s they would be u n d etecta b le and in c o n se q u e n tia l. Thus, su b je c ts were l e s s l i k e l y to g iv e d i f f e r e n t i a l resp on ses to the ch ild re n on the s e x -r o le r e la te d words. H ypothesis 2. The mode o f communicating a c h ild 's behavior to a r a te r w i l l have an e f f e c t on the r a t e r 's se x - r o le r e la te d r a tin g s o f the c h ild 's behavior. The w r itte n n a rra tiv e c o n d itio n w i l l e l i c i t r a tin g s which are s i g n i f i c a n tly more ster eo ty p e d than ra tin g s e l i c i t e d in the v id eotap e c o n d itio n. There was no s i g n if ic a n t e f f e c t on r a tin g s o f a c h i l d s behavior when th a t c h ild 's behavior was communicated to r a te r s v ia v id eo ta p e or w r itte n n a r r a tiv e. The a n a ly s is o f v a rian ce summary ta b le showed no main e f f e c t fo r tra n sm issio n c o n d itio n (see Table 2 ). The means o f the

82 r a te r d iffe r e n c e sco res in the two communication modes were, 69 as in the r e s u lt s fo r sex la b e l, e s s e n t i a l l y the same. These d iffe r e n c e score means are g iv en in Table 3. The means o f the average o f the male item s and the average o f the fem ale item s fo r each communication mode are p resen ted in Table D iffe re n ce s between the two modes fo r the male and fem ale item s were in s ig n if ic a n t. Small d iffe r e n c e s were rev ea led, however, fo r the average o f the male item s in both communication modes as compared to the average o f the fem ale item s in both communication modes. These c o n s is te n c ie s in d ic a te d th a t r a te r s a ttr ib u te d more o f the male c h a r a c t e r is t ic s than the fem ale c h a r a c te r is tic s to a c h ild independent o f the communication mode employed. H ypothesis 3. The in te r a c tio n o f sex la b e l a p p lied to a c h ild and mode o f communicating a c h ild 's behavior to a r a te r w ill have an e f f e c t on r a t e r 's s e x -r o le r a tin g s o f a c h ild 's behavior where a g re a te r divergence o f s e x -r o le ster eo ty p ed r a tin g s fo r the m ale, fem ale, and n eu tral la b e le d c h ild w i l l occur in the w r itte n n a rra tiv e as opposed to the vid eotap e communication mode. The in te r a c tio n e f f e c t on r a tin g s o f s e x -r o le r e la te d item s fo r the v a r ia b le s of sex la b e l and communication mode were i n s ig n if ic a n t as i s shown in Table 2. A n a ly sis o f MAS D ifferen ce Scores H ypothesis 1. The sex la b e l a p p lied to a c h ild w ill have an e f f e c t on r a t e r 's s e x -r o le r e la te d ra tin g s o f a c h i l d s b eh avior. Again, there was no evidence to su g g est the sex la b e l g iv e n a c h ild would a f f e c t s e x -r o le r e la te d ra tin g s o f th e ir b eh avior. In Table 5 the a n a ly s is o f v a rian ce summary i s

83 70 TABLE 5 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR EFFECT OF SEX LABEL AND COMMUNICATION MODE ON RATER DIFFERENCE SCORES DERIVED FROM MAS Source o f Variance d.f S.S. M.S. F Told Sex IO Communication Mode Told Sex X Communication Error T otal For p<. 05, F=4.00 p resen ted showing the MAS d iffe r e n c e s c o r e s. Tables 6 and 7 shows the c lo s e proxim ity o f the d iffe r e n c e score means. C o n sisten t n eg a tiv e mean d iffe r e n c e sco res were obtained fo r a l l the experim ental c o n d itio n s. The n eg a tiv e value in d ic a te d th a t when c a lc u la tin g the d iffe r e n c e score the m a le's MAS score was l e s s than the fem a le's MAS sco re. Such a score may su g g est co u n te rster eo ty p in g. Meyer and S ob ieszek (1972) found th e ir fem ale r a te r s, male r a te r s w ith high co n ta ct w ith c h ild r e n, and e s p e c ia lly fem ales having high co n ta ct w ith c h ild r e n to ra te a female d escrib ed c h ild as more m ascu lin e. However, in a r e p lic a t io n o f the 1972 study (S ob ieszek 1977). only fem ales and e s p e c ia lly the low co n ta ct w ith c h ild r e n group co u n terstereo ty p ed. For

84 71 TABLE 6 MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN OF RATER DIFFERENCE SCORES DERIVED FROM MAS BY SEX LABEL, COMMUNICATION MODE, SEX' LABEL X COMMUNICATION MODE Standard V a ria b les n Mean D ev ia tio n Sex Label Told Sex Told C hild ? Communication Mode V ideotape W ritten N arrative * Sex Label X Communication Mode Told Sex X V ideotape Told Sex X W ritten N arrative Told C hild X V ideotape Told C hild X W ritten N arrative O verall Means o f D iffe ren ce Scores * p <.05

85 7 2 TABLE 7 MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN OF RATERS MAS BY SEX LABEL AND COMMUNICATION MODE V a r ia b le s n Mean Standard D e v ia tio n Standar E rror 0 Mean Sex Label Male ' Female o C h ild Communication Mode V ideotape 6k kk W ritten N a rra tiv e O v era ll Mean o f M ascu lin e A ttr ib u te S co res

86 73 the sample o f somewhat s k i l l e d fem ale o b servers in the p resen t study very l i t t l e c o u n te r ste r e o ty p in g, i f any, occurred. An exam ination o f the c o n tro l group mean d iffe r e n c e sc o r e s provided an a lt e r n a tiv e ex p la n a tio n to co u n te r ste r e o ty p in g as the reason fo r the n eg a tiv e valu e d iffe r e n c e s c o r e s. The groups who were t o ld the c h ild was a c h ild and n ot a male or fem ale a ls o gave sco res which provided n eg a tiv e valu e d iffe r e n c e s c o r e s. In t h is case co u n te r ste r e o ty p in g could not have occurred s in c e no sex la b e l was g iv e n. Evidence from the e v a lu a tio n o f the average r a tin g s o f the male item s and average o f the fem ale item s g iv en in Table A in d ic a te th a t the d iffe r e n c e i s probably accounted fo r in the p a r tic u la r words used in the CBRS. H ypothesis 2. The mode o f communicating a c h ild 's beh avior to a r a te r w i l l have an e f f e c t on the r a t e r 's s e x -r o le r e la te d r a tin g s o f the c h ild 's b eh avior. The w r itte n n a r r a tiv e c o n d itio n w i l l e l i c i t r a tin g s which are s i g n i f i c a n t l y more ster eo ty p e d than r a tin g s e l i c i t e d in the v id eo ta p e c o n d itio n, MAS r a tin g s were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y in flu e n c e by the u se o f v id eo ta p e versu s w r itte n n a r r a tiv e modes o f communic a t io n as shown in the a n a ly s is o f varian ce summary ta b le (se e Table 5) T estin g fo r e q u a lity o f the w r itte n n a r r a tiv e and v id e o tape p o p u la tio n MAS d iffe r e n c e score v a ria n c es re v ea le d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t v a r i a b i l i t y d iffe r e n c e s a t the.05 le v e l (se e Table 6 )* A graph was p lo tte d in order to

87 g a in a b e t t e r p e r s p e c tiv e o f the d iff e r e n c e s c o r e s. F igure 7 p lo t s each s u b je c t (1 through 64) on the h o r iz o n ta l a x is and th e MAS d iff e r e n c e s c o r e s (-3 0 to +30) on the v e r t i c a l a x is. The v l e t t e r w ith in the graph r e p r e s e n ts th o se s u b je c ts who view ed v id e o ta p e s w h ile th e w v a lu e r e p r e s e n ts th e s u b je c ts who read w r itte n n a r r a t iv e s. C ounter to the r e se a r c h h y p o th e sis quoted above, the d iff e r e n c e s c o r e s under the two c o n d itio n s were e q u a lly d is t r ib u t e d on the p o s it iv e (im p ly in g s te r e o ty p in g ) and n e g a tiv e (im p ly in g c o u n te r s te r e o ty p in g ) s id e o f z e r o. However, the v id eo ta p e c o n d itio n tended to e l i c i t more v a r ia b le r a t in g s when compared to r a t in g s e l i c i t e d in th e w r itte n n a r r a tiv e c o n d itio n. One e x p la n a tio n o f t h i s r e s u l t i s th a t r a te r s v ie w in g th e v id e o ta p e made u se o f th e type o f in fo r m a tio n the tap e p rovid ed and th ereb y made more d e f i n i t i v e r a tin g s o f b eh a v io r ( i.e., th ey r a te d th e b eh a v io rs th e y saw ). In a d d itio n, th e se r a te r s were tr a in e d o b ser v ers o f c h ild r e n 's b eh a v io r where th ey had more e x p er ien ce in o b serv in g b eh a v io rs as compared to rea d in g about b e h a v io r s. R aters in the w r itte n n a r r a tiv e c o n d itio n may have had some unc e r t a in t y about r a tin g the c h ild r e n 's b eh a v io rs based on th e typ e o f in fo r m a tio n p rovid ed by the w r itte n n a r r a tiv e. C on seq u en tly, the n a r r a tiv e r a tin g s c lu s t e r e d more toward th e m iddle l i n e o f the s c a l e, where l e s s judgment was r e q u ir e d.

88 MAS DIFFERENCE SCORES -10 vv v = videotape w = written narrative I*- o I SUBJECT NUMBER V FIGURE 7 SCATTER PLOT OF MAS DIFFERENCE SCORES COMPARING VIDEOTAPE TRANSMISSION MODE AND WRITTEN NARRATIVE TRANSMISSION MODE FOR ALL SUBJECTS so f 0 TO

89 76 An a l t e r n a t iv e e x p la n a tio n f o r th e c l u s t e r i n g o f r e sp o n se s i n th e w r it t e n n a r r a tiv e c o n d itio n f o l lo w s. The w r it t e n n a r r a tiv e may have p ro v id ed r a t e r s w ith more d e f i n i t i v e in fo r m a tio n ab out th e c h ild su ch t h a t th e r a t e r r e s p o n s e s were d ir e c t e d more to m id d le l i n e r a t i n g s. R a ters read s p e c i f i c o b j e c t iv e d e s c r ip t io n s o f th e c h ild r e n s b e h a v io r as in th e w r it t e n n a r r a tiv e c o n d itio n as opposed to th e v id e o ta p e c o n d it io n where th e y view ed and th en in t e r p r e t e d f o r th e m se lv e s th e c h ild r e n ' s b e h a v io r s. C o n s e q u e n tly, th e v id e o ta p e c o n d it io n e l i c i t e d more v a r ia b le r e s p o n s e s than th e w r it t e n n a r r a tiv e c o n d it io n. H y p o th esis 3. The i n t e r a c t i o n o f se x l a b e l a p p lie d to a c h i l d and mode o f com m unicating a c h i l d s b e h a v io r to a r a t e r w i l l have an e f f e c t on r a t e r s s e x - r o le r a t in g s o f a c h i l d s b e h a v io r where a g r e a te r d iv e r g e n c e o f s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p e d r a t in g s f o r th e m a le, fe m a le, and n e u tr a l la b e le d c h i l d w i l l o ccu r in th e w r it t e n n a r r a tiv e as opposed to th e v id e o ta p e com m unication mode. A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e r e v e a le d no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t on MAS d if f e r e n c e s c o r e s f o r th e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d itio n ( s e e T able 5 ). V a r i a b i l i t y was n o te d i n th e sta n d a rd d e v ia t io n and sta n d a rd e r r o r o f th e mean f o r th e in t e r a c t i o n v a lu e s as i s shown in T able 6, In o rd er to e x p lo r e th e s e i n t e r a c t io n d i f f e r e n c e s, F ig u r e 7 and F ig u re 8 w i l l be b r i e f l y d is c u s s e d. The form at f o r F ig u re 8 i s i d e n t i c a l to 7 (s e e page 73 f o r a d e s c r ip t io n ) e x c e p t th e l e t t e r s w ith in the graph r e p r e s e n t th e t o l d se x (m) and t o ld c h ild (c ) c o n d it io n s. When th e s e two f ig u r e s are exam ined sim u lta n e -

90 20 10 M M c M MAS DIFFERENCE SCORES -10 W C M * C C M c C «C C " M M M h e c C * c M c c c r. c N -20 H c C m - told sex group c = told child group 30 * C ) t * f * *----- ' *' o JO * 0 *'<> *0 T0 SUBJECT NUMBER FIGURE 8 SCATTER PLOT OF MAS DIFFERENCE SCORES COMPARING TOLD SEX GROUP AND TOLD CHILD GROUP FOR ALL SUBJECTS _ ^

91 o u s ly, th ey p ro v id e a g ra p h ic i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the d if f e r e n c e 78 s c o r e s i n a l l the e x p er im en ta l c o n d it io n s. The l e a s t amount o f v a r i a b i l i t y was found f o r r a t in g s g iv e n in the w r it t e n n a r r a tiv e c o n d it io n where the c h ild r e n r a te d were g iv e n no g en d er l a b e l. However, d if f e r e n c e s c o r e s f o r th e no gen d er la b e l- v id e o t a p e co m b in a tio n o f c o n d it io n s were th e m ost v a r ia b le o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n s. F or r a t e r s who view ed th e v id e o ta p e and were g iv e n a g en d er l a b e l, th e a c t o f v ie w in g th e la b e le d c h ild may have made them more c o n s c io u s o f t h e i r r a t in g judgm ents and th u s more c o n s e r v a t iv e. In th e w r it t e n n a r r a tiv e -n o n sex l a b e l c o n d it io n r a t e r d if f e r e n c e s c o r e s were th e l e a s t v a r i a b le. In t h i s e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d itio n th e lo w er v a r i a b i l i t y m ight r e f l e c t a la c k o f in fo r m a tio n to th e r a t e r s. S in c e th e r e was o n ly a w r it t e n d e s c r ip t io n o f a c h i l d ' s b e h a v io r, perhaps r a t e r s f e l t th e y had no b a s is upon w hich to make a judgm ent. As a r e s u l t, r a t in g s w ere made tow ard th e m id d le o f th e s c a l e. The se x l a b e l may have p ro v id e d r a t e r s w ith s l i g h t l y more in fo r m a tio n th e re b y a llo w in g them to make s l i g h t l y l e s s c o n s e r v a tiv e r a t i n g s. In t h i s stu d y th e s u b j e c t s ' e x p e r ie n c e w ith c h ild r e n was d e fin e d as uniform and c h a r a c te r iz e d by s im ila r o b s e r v a t io n - le a r n in g e x p e r ie n c e w it h in a c h ild developm ent c o l l e g e l e v e l c o u r s e. One p o s s i b l e e x p la n a tio n f o r th e d a ta p o in ts i n F ig u r e s 7 and 8 w hich were o u tla y in g r a th e r th an c lu s t e r e d i s th e p e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e th e s u b j e c t s have had w ith c h ild r e n. P r e v io u s s e x - r o le s t e r e o t y p in g

92 79 s t u d ie s r e v e a le d s u b j e c t s ' e x p er ien ce and c o n ta c t w ith c h ild r e n have an im pact on t h e ir s e x - r o le r e la t e d r a tin g s o f c h ild r e n 's b eh a v io r (Condry and Condry 1976, R othbart and Maccoby 1966, Meyer and S o b ie sze k 1972, S o b ie sze k 1977)* In t h i s stu d y the e x p e r ie n c e f a c t o r r e la t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y th e the s u b j e c ts ' o b se r v a tio n e x p e r ie n c e r a th e r than t h e ir p e rso n a l e x p e r ie n c e w ith c h ild r e n. Perhaps a c a r e fu l d e f i n i t i o n o f and ex p erim en ta l c o n tr o l f o r s u b je c ts ' personal e x p e r ie n c e s would p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n which would accoun t f o r the h igh and low d iff e r e n c e s c o r e s g iv e n by some o f th e s u b j e c ts. SUMMARY T his ex p erim en ta l stu d y examined th e s e x - r o le s t e r e o ty p in g r a t in g b eh a v io rs o f 64 fem a les who had had some c h ild o b se r v a tio n e x p e r ie n c e. These s u b je c ts r a te d two c h ild r e n on s e x - r o le r e la t e d a t t r ib u t e s. The r a t e r s ' p o te n t i a l s te r e o ty p in g b eh a v io rs were stu d ie d under c o n d itio n s where d i f f e r e n t i a l se x la b e ls were a p p lie d to the c h ild r e n th e y were to r a t e. In a d d itio n, two com m unication modes were used to inform th e r a te r s about the b eh a v io rs o f the c h ild r e n th e y were to r a t e. Summarizing the r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu d y, the m ale, fem a le, and c h ild la b e ls a p p lie d to the c h ild r e n who were r a te d had no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on th e r a t e r s ' s e x - r o le r e la t e d r a t in g s. The v id e o ta p e and w r itte n n a r r a tiv e com m unication modes e l i c i t e d e s s e n t i a l l y the same mean r esp o n ses from the

93 r a t e r s. However in th e v id e o ta p e com m unication c o n d itio n th e v a r i a b i l i t y o f the r a t e r s ' re sp o n se s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p < -05) g r e a te r than i n th e w r itte n n a r r a tiv e c o n d itio n. L a s tly, the in t e r a c t io n o f the sex la b e l and com m unication mode c o n d itio n s r e v e a le d no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s. A ll mean d if f e r e n c e s were ex trem ely s m a ll.

94 CHAPTER V SUMMARY AMD IMPLICATION SUMMARY Purpose and m eth o d o lo g y. The purpose o f t h i s in v e s t i g a t i o n was to exam ine th e s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p in g b eh a v io rs o f a sam ple o f fem ale s u b je c ts who r e p r e se n te d in d iv id u a ls l i k e l y to be em ployed on a r e se a r c h p r o j e c t. The stud y was d esig n ed to d eterm ine i f th e se in d iv id u a ls s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p e d c h ild r e n 's b eh a v io r and under what c o n d itio n s th ey m ight be more or l e s s prone to s t e r e o t y p e. Two v a r ia b le s s t r e s s in g m eth o d o lo g ic a l a lt e r n a t iv e s w hich m ight be em ployed in a r e se a r c h stu d y were o f i n t e r e s t. The f i r s t v a r ia b le p e r ta in s to the se x la b e l a p p lie d to a c h ild who was to be r a te d. The l a b e l s used i n t h i s exp erim en t w erei c h ild, m ale, fem a le. The second v a r ia b le concerned the method used to communicate b e h a v io ra l in fo r m a tio n about the c h ild to be r a te d to the r a t e r. V id eo ta p es o f two 1? m onth-old c h ild r e n and w r itte n n a r r a tiv e s o f the v id e o ta p e s com prised the com m unication mode v a r ia b le. S u b je c ts were randomly a ssig n e d to ex p erim en ta l c o n d itio n s where th ey e i t h e r observed or read about two c h ild r e n who were la b e le d m ale, fem a le, or c h ild. S u b je c ts 81

95 82 th en r a te d th e c h ild r e n u s in g the C h ild B ehavior R ating S c a le. T his s c a le was o r i g i n a l l y d evelop ed by Meyer and S o b ie sze k (1972) and was s l i g h t l y m o d ifie d f o r u se in t h i s stu d y. The item s w ith in th e s c a le in c lu d e d s i x male s e x - r o le r e la t e d ite m s, s i x fem ale s e x - r o le r e la t e d item s and s i x n e u tr a l s e x - r o le ite m s. These item s were l i s t e d w ith the a d je c t iv e a t one end o f a s c a le and th e a d je c t iv e p refa ced w ith n o t a t the o th e r end o f the s c a l e. The s c a le ranged from one to e i g h t, (e.g., a g g r e s s iv e / / / / / / / / n o t a g g r e s s iv e ) The t o t a l tim e req u ired f o r s u b je c ts to com plete th e exp erim en t was a p p roxim ately 30 m in u te s. W ithin th a t 30 m in u tes, two v id e o ta p e s were ob served or two n a r r a tiv e s were read and two r a tin g s were com p leted. Sam ple. The 64- v o lu n te e r s u b je c ts i n t h is stu d y were fem ale c o l le g e stu d e n ts e n r o lle d in Home Economics c h ild developm ent co u rses i n which o b s e r v a tio n s k i l l s were le a r n e d and p r a c t ic e d. Three u n i v e r s i t i e s p rovid ed s u b je c ts f o r t h is stu d y, M isso u ri U n iv e r s ity, The Ohio S ta te U n iv e r s ity, and O tte r b e in C o lle g e were r e p r e s e n te d. The mean age o f the sam ple was 20 y ea rs o f a g e. Two s u b je c ts were p a r e n ts. F in d in g s. The data r e s u l t i n g from su b je c ts * r a tin g s were tran sform ed in t o d iff e r e n c e s c o r e s and a n a ly zed u sin g two-way a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e. The r e se a r c h h y p o th eses and r e s u l t s o f a n a ly s is are summarized below.

96 83 H y p o th esis 1. The sex la b e l a p p lie d to a c h ild w i l l have an e f f e c t on r a t e r ' s s e x - r o le r e la t e d r a t in g s o f a c h i l d ' s b eh a v io r. The se x la b e l a p p lie d to a c h ild d id n ot a f f e c t su b je c ts' s e x - r o le r e la t e d r a t in g s o f the c h i l d s b eh a v io r. d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e means were ex trem ely s m a ll. The When exam ining th e average r a tin g s o f th e male item s and the average r a t in g o f the fem ale item s th e r e was a v ery sm all but c o n s is t e n t d iff e r e n c e i n th e m eans. S u b je c ts ra ted a l l the c h ild r e n 's b eh a v io r as r e f l e c t i n g more o f th e mascul i n e a t t r ib u t e s as compared to th e fem in in e a t t r i b u t e s. T his d iff e r e n c e in th e mean v a lu e s was not o n ly se e n fo r th e sex la b e l c o n d itio n s, but a ls o se e n a c r o ss a l l co n d i t io n s. H yp oth esis 2. The mode o f com m unicating a c h i l d ' s b eh a v io r to a r a t e r w i l l have an e f f e c t on r a t e r 's s e x - r o le r e la t e d r a tin g s o f the c h i l d s b eh a v io r. There was no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on r a t in g s o f a c h i l d ' s b eh a v io r when com paring the re sp o n se s g iv e n i n the v id eo ta p e com m unication mode w ith the w r it t e n n a r r a tiv e mode. As in th e se x la b e l c o n d itio n, the d iff e r e n c e s th a t d id e x i s t were im m a te r ia l. For th e v id e o ta p e c o n d itio n, however, th e r e was s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p <. 05) more v a r i a b i l i t y in the r a t in g s in com parison w ith the w r itte n n a r r a tiv e c o n d itio n. H yp oth esis 3. The in t e r a c t io n o f sex la b e l a p p lie d to a c h ild and mode o f com m unicating a c h i l d ' s b eh a v io r to a r a t e r w i l l have an e f f e c t on r a t e r ' s s e x - r o le r e la t e d r a t in g s o f a c h i l d ' s b eh a v io r. The in t e r a c t io n e f f e c t o f sex la b e l and com m unication mode on s e x - r o le r e la t e d r a tin g s was i n s i g n i f i c a n t.

97 8^ There i s no r e a so n to b e lie v e t h a t r e s e a r c h w orkers com parable to th e stu d y sam ple would s e x - r o le s t e r e o t y p e b e h a v io r s i n any s y s te m a tic manner under c o n d it io n s where d i f f e r e n t i a l se x l a b e l s are a p p lie d or where com m unication mode v a r ie d from v id e o ta p e to w r it t e n n a r r a t iv e. IMPLICATIONS The f in d in g s o f t h i s stu d y r e v e a l s i m i l a r i t y f o r a l l s u b j e c t s ' s e x - r o l e r e la t e d r a t in g s among th e v a r io u s e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d it io n s. S tu d ie s a p p ea rin g i n th e s e x - r o le s t e r e o t y p in g l i t e r a t u r e t y p i c a l l y r e v e a l d if f e r e n c e s i n r a t e r r e sp o n se s to c h il d r e n ' s b e h a v io r. In many o f th e s e s t u d ie s th e r a t e r s v a r ie d in t h e ir in d iv id u a l c h a r a c te r i s t i c s ( i.e., s e x, amount o f e x p e r ie n c e w ith c h ild r e n ). The d if f e r e n c e s w it h in th e r a t e r s w ere r e la t e d to th e d if f e r e n c e s w hich emerged i n th e stu d y f in d in g s. R e la tin g th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu d y, w hich co n tro lle d th e above m en tio n ed in d iv id u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, to th e o th e r s e x - r o le s t e r e o t y p in g s t u d ie s s u g g e s t s an im p lic a t io n f o r p erso n s h ir in g r e s e a r c h w o rk ers. I f th e dependent v a r ia b le under stu d y i s known to be d i f f e r e n t i a l l y r a te d or in flu e n c e d by c e r t a in ty p e s o f in d i v id u a ls, th en c a r e in h ir in g w orkers fo r th e stu d y i s s u g g e s te d. Worker v a r ia b le s to be c o n s id er ed when s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p in g i s o f i n t e r e s t a re se x and ty p e o f o b s e r v a tio n t r a in in g. The f in d in g o f a s l i g h t but c o n s i s t e n t d if f e r e n c e f o r th e a verage o f th e m ale ite m s when compared to th e av era g e

98 85 o f th e fem a le ite m s in a l l ex p e r im e n ta l c o n d itio n s p r o v id e s th e b a s is f o r a c l o s e r ex a m in a tio n o f th e words u sed in th e dependent m easu re. The m ale item s a p p ea rin g i n th e C h ild B eh a v io r R a tin g S c a le were alw ays r a te d as b ein g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a c h ild to a g r e a te r d egree th a n were th e fem ale it e m s. Thus, th e c h o ic e o f words w ith in th e r e s e a r c h in stru m en t and th e v a lu e a n d /o r m eaning o f th o se words to p erso n s u s in g th e in str u m e n t sh o u ld be exam ined and u n d ersto o d by th e r e s e a r c h e r. P r e t e s t in g words w ith a sam ple o f in d i v id u a ls s im ila r to th e in d iv id u a ls who w i l l be th e stu d y sam ple i s w a rra n ted. The la c k o f s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in r a t in g s r e f l e c t i n g s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p in g in th e v id e o ta p e and w r it t e n n a r r a tiv e com m unication c o n d it io n s s u g g e s t s th a t when s e x - r o le r e la t e d b e h a v io r r a t in g s need to be o b ta in e d, a w r it t e n d e s c r ip t io n o f th e b e h a v io r s w i l l se r v e th e purpose as w e ll a s a v id e o ta p e r e c o r d in g o f th e b eh a v io r s when o b s e r v e r s have s im ila r q u a l i t i e s to th o s e i n t h i s stu d y. Thus c e r t a i n e x p e n se s r e la t e d to v id e o ta p e equipm ent p u rch ase and m ain ten an ce may be a v o id e d. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH The f o llo w in g id e a s f o r fu tu r e r e s e a r c h were g e n er a te d by t h i s s tu d y. There i s a need to : 1. I n v e s t i g a t e th e e f f e c t o f o b s e r v in g b e h a v io r s w hich are c l e a r l y m ale and fem a le s e x - r o l e r e la t e d under c o n d it io n s o f d i f f e r e n t i a l se x l a b e l i n g on o b s e r v e r s ' r a t in g s o f b e h a v io r.

99 R e p lic a te s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p in g r e s e a r c h s t u d ie s and em ploy c o n t r o l groups so com p arison s can be made. 3. P ro v id e r e s e a r c h w orkers w ith v a r y in g ty p e s o f t r a in in g w hich i s r e la t e d to th e r e s e a r c h v a r ia b le s u nd er stu d y and exam ine th e e f f e c t o f t h i s t r a i n i n g on t h e i r d a ta c o l l e c t i o n r e s u l t s. k. I n v e s t i g a t e th e com m unication mode em ployed in r e s e a r c h s e t t i n g s t o f u r t h e r u n d erstan d th e s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b i l i t y d if f e r e n c e s found i n t h i s stu d y betw een w r it t e n n a r r a t iv e and v id e o ta p e c o n d it io n s. 5. Employ th e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n o f t h i s stu d y u s in g dependent m easure in s tr u m e n ta tio n su ch as o b j e c t iv e freq u en cy co u n ts to exam ine i f s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p in g o cc u r s w it h in th a t ty p e o f in s tr u m e n ta tio n.

100 APPENDIX A W r itte n N a r r a tiv e o f Baby A W ritten N a r r a tiv e o f Baby B T able 8--F r e q u en c y o f R esp on ses to Q u estio n s R egarding Sex o f C h ild in N a r r a tiv e s and C la r i t y o f N a r r a tiv e s 87

101 8 8 WRITTEN NARRATIVE OF BABY A Baby (B) is standing at a table/ a pile of blocks are stacked and scattered on the table/ B is looking at the Assistant (A) who is seated at the end of the table/ B looks at the blocks, tilts head sideways resting it on the table to look at blocks/ A vocalizes to B/ B looks at A/ B watches as A builds with blocks/ A hands B a block/ B puts block on the tower (this block makes it 5 blocks high)/ B picks up another block and puts it on top--but the tower tumbles dowry' B looks at the fallen blocks visually follovfing one which falls underneath the table/ A reaches under the table and retrieves the block/ B looks at A/ B looks at the blocks/ A and B move the blocks around on the table from one position to another/ B playing with blocks/ B stands on chair and begins to look around the room/ A brings small mirror to the table/a takes away the blocks/ B looks in mirror as it sits on table/ B smiles/ B touches mirror/ A holds mirror up for B/ B sits down in chair, was standing on it previously, then scoots down into chair/ B looks into mirror/ Mirror is laying flat on table and B is looking at reflection with face almost touching mirror/ B is pointing at image/ A vocalizing/ B looks up at A/ A tilts mirror a bit/ B turns mirror at 90 degree angle with table and looks underneath/ E looks at A/ B flips mirror over, looking at the back/ B seated at the table with A to the side/ B looks at hammer and peg board set which A put to the side/ B starts to get off of the chair, stops and looks around the roon/ B sitting on chair staring into space quietly/ A stacks three blocks in a tower on the table/ B smiling and looking at blocks/ B takes top block off and holds out in front of body vocalizing/ B puts the block down and picks up another/ A walks away from table/ B watches A, touches block in hand to mouth then sets it down/ B stacks one block on top of another/ B vocalizes/ B starts to stack another block on top to make three/ In the process, B looks up at A and the block misses its mark--the tower falls/ B looks at blocks/ B smiling/ A comes back to table and puts some more blocks down/ B manipulates the blocks around on table/ B playing with stacking cups, attempting to put one inside other/ B puts one inside successfully, smiles, puts in another, then puts in last one/ B reaches out toward A and vocalizes/ A picks up stacked cups and dumps them all out onto the table/ B watches the cups fall and smiles/ B begins stacking them back together/ B trying to get ono inside the other but it does not fit--too largo/ B keeps trying to push them together applying some pressure/ B then looks toward A then reaches toward the side/ A offers B the hammer and peg board set/

102 A takes hammer from hole in the set and hands to B/ B smiles and takes the hammer immediately replacing it in its hole/ A removing some of the stacking cups from the table but left one behind/ B sees the cup, picks it up and hands to A/ B turns around in chair and is looking around the room/ A takes the hammer and demonstrates pounding the pegs/ B watches, smiles, fingers the peg board/ B reaches out for the hammer/ A gives B the hammer/ B pats at the board with the hammer/b holding hammer sideways/ B smiles/ B puts end of hammer in mouth momentarily/b takes out of mouth and taps a bit on the peg board/ B discards the hammer to the side and vocalizes/ A offers B the doll/ B reaches out for doll/ A puts doll on table/ B fingers the doll/ B picks the doll up in air, doll drops to table/ 3 picks it up and is looking at the doll's face/ B stands doll upright and fingers the doll's head/ B pushing on doll s head with one hand/ A puts a diaper down in front of B/ B picks up diaper and attempts to place it on the doll s head/ Diaper falls off doll and doll falls into B's lap/ B attempting all the while to put the diaper on the doll s head/ B has the doll half wrapped up with the diaper over front of doll s head and body/ B holding wrapped doll against shoulder, looks at A, smiles/ B standing up playing with a wooden folding chair/ the chair begins to fold/ B follows it to the floor as it folds, holding on/ B lets it drop to the floor/ A is standing beside B/ B standing and A vocalizing to B/ B hands A a toy which B had in hand then eats a cracker which was in the other hand/ A talking to B/ A removes chair/ B watches A/ A brings a book over to B/ A kneels by B and shows book/ B turns and walks away/ B sits down away from A/ A offers a container with timr blocks inside to B/ B reaches in and takes out some blocks/ B is standing away from A when reaching so has to stretch a bit/ B starts to walk away/ A brings B back by holding B's arm/ B reaches into container and takes out one of the blocks/ B looks at blocks on floor then walks away carrying some of the blocks/ B bending down, picking up more of the blocks which are scattered on floor/ B walks away and then turns around and comes back/ B picks up more blocks and places them in the container/ E places a few in container/ B watches/ A gives a block to B/B looks at blocks, then at A/ A puts a block in container/ B watches A then puts one in container/ B squats down and picks up more blocks and puts into container/ B smiles at A/ A hands B the hammer/ B takes hammer and simultaneously takes a block from inside the container/ B puts block on the floor

103 and hammers on it with the claw end of the hammer/ B gets on hands and feet, then to squat, and finally to sitting positior/ During the position change B is holding the hammer and hitting at the blocks/ B smiling/ A tosses a larger block to the B/ when block hits floor B hammers at it and smiles/ B now trying to put one of the small blocks into the claw end of hammer/ A tosses B a ball/ B scoots the ball across the floor with hammer head/ A tossing ball at B/ ball goes past B and B attempts to hit it/ A tosses another ball and B tries to hit this one too/ B turns, drops block from hand and picks up ball/ B rubs ball against wall radiator/ B still holding hammer/ B tosses ball to floor/ A tosses ball back/ B ignores ball and picks up one of the blocks/ B is looking into a wicker hamper which is laying on its side/ B opens the top slightly and peers in then shuts the top/ B looks at the hamper top with face against wicker/ B then does the same at the bottom end of hamper/ A vocalizes/ B opens the hamper top and looks irv^ shuts it, opens it/ B sticks arm in hamper/ B looks at A/ B backs away from hamper/ A hands B a small toy which B puts on top of hamper/ B then puts toy inside hamper/ 3 shuts top of hamper/ A gives B a ball/ B opens hamper and tosses ball in/ A vocalises to B/ B shuts hamper top/ A offers B a doll/ B immediately turns and walks away/ A hands B toy car/ B opens hamper and puts car in / B looks into hamper then shuts top/ B walks away, emiling/ A vocalizes then hand B book/ B looks at book, fingers book/ B turns to another person in room and show person the book/ B sits down on floor/ A vocalizes to B then opens hamper top and puts a picture inside/ B comes over and looks into hamper/ B shuts hamper top/ B fingers top of hamper, looks at A then lifts top/ B looks inside, then shuts the top/ B looks at A/ B vocalizes, smiles/ B looks at hamper then puts head on hamper as if to peek through the wicker to the inside/ B looks at A and vocalizes/

104 91 WRITTEN NARRATIVE OF BABY B Baby (B) is seated on the floor in front of a wicker hamper/ B is playing with some toys/ B looks at toys which are scattered to the side/ Assistant (A) is seated next to B/ A vocalizes and handles some of the toys/ B mouthing and eating a cracker/ B looks to the side/ B stands up/ A opens the top of the hamper and B takes out a doll/ A sits the B down/ B fingering the doll's feet while holding the doll upside down/ B looks up at A, smiles and vocalizes/ B offers doll to A/ A takes the doll and vocalizes to B/ A is holding and patting the doll on the back as B watches/ B reaches for the doll/ A hands doll back to B/ B fingers the doll's face/ B looks out into the room, smiles/ B holding doll then slings the doll over own shoulder/ A vocalizes to B/ B examining doll's eyes and face/ A reaches into the hamper/ B looking at A/ A pulls out a diaper/ A opens the diaper in front of B/ B takes diaper from A and covers the doll with it/ A vocalizing and smiling/ A picks up the diaper and demonstrates diapering of the doll/ B watches for a second/ B then pulls the diaper away and discards it to the side/ B picks up doll/ B begins to stand up holding the doll, but lets doll drop to the floor/b instead picks up a blanket and puts thumb in mouth/ A begins to pat the doll which is laying on the floor/ B watches and then mimics by also patting the doll/ B stands up and has picked up the doll by the head/ B holds doll out to A who kisses the doll/ A vocalizes and turns the doll toward B encouraging B to also kiss the doll/ B kisses doll then walks away/ A reaches into the hamper and takes out a ball/ A bounces ball on the floor/ B is wandering around the room/ A brings B toward her and sits B dowi^ B looking around room/ A bouncing the ball and vocalizing to B/ B stands up, walks over to bouncing ball/ when ball stops bouncing, B picks it up/ A reaches out both hands for B to give her ball/ B looking at ball, smiles, drops ball/ B watches as ball bounces/ A catches bouncing ball and then rolls it to B/ B picks up ball and walks over to hamper holding the ball in one hand/ B opens hamper top and reaches ir/ A comes over and assists B by tipping the hamper/ A pulls out a toy car/ B looks at car and takes from a/ B squats down on the floor with ball and car in hand/ B playing with the car going from a squat to a sit/ B starts to crawl away but A pulls B back/ B is vocalizing and fingering the car which is on the floor/ B stands up and walks to the other side of the room where there is a pile of toys/ A reaches into hamper and brings out a plastic bag which has tiny blocks inside/ A gives to B/ B seated on floor/ B takes blocks out of bag/ B puts blocks one by one into a square container which is on the floor/ A vocalizes to B/

105 9 2 B reaches out with a block in hand/ A offers her hand/ B gives her the block/ A vocalizes to B/ B takes block back and then tosses it to the floor in the direction of A/ A picks up block and shows it to B/ A then drops block into container/ B reaches into container and takes block out/ B playing v/ith block while A vocalizing A moves closer to B/ B continuing to examine blocks and continuing to put them into the container/ B reaches out toward A with block in hand/ B smiles/ A vocalizes/ B turns back to container and focusing attention to blocks and container/ A vocalizes/ B reaches out a hand with a block in it/ B gives A block/ B picks up another block/ A deposits her block in the container/ 3 looks into the container for the block/ B reaches down and puts several more blocks into the container/ A picks up hammer and peg set and places it in front of B/ A demonstrates pounding the peg with the hammer/b reaches out and fingers pegs and places the tiny blocks on top of the peg set/ A shows hammer to B/ B ignores/ B busy fingering and placing the blocks on the peg set/ A starts to put hammer into B left hand,b takes with right hand and begins to hammer on the pegs/ A vocalizing and laughing/ B has hammer in one hand and is fingering the peg set with the other/ B has transferred hammer to other hand and is again fingering and placing blocks on pegs/b looks at A/ B begins to hammer on pegs/ B turns around and looks behind/ B sees a ball and points to it/ A distracts B by offering another ball which the A puts on top of the peg set/ B takes the ball off the peg set and holds in one hand/ A offers B hammer/ B drops ball then picks it up/ B is trying to place ball on peg set/ A takes ball off peg set and bounces it on the floor/ A removes peg set by putting it behind her back/ A throws ball against wall behind B/ B is looking around rooir/ A pulls B by feet closer to her/ B scoots back immediately/ A bouncing ball in front of B/ A stands up beside B/ A bounces ball into B's lap/ B picks up ball and offers back to A/ A takes ball and touches B's feet with it, vocalizing to B/ A takes B by hand and brings to a standing position/ B pushes away and walks past A (who is bouncing the ball) toward pile of toys in other part of room/ B is now turning in circles and laughing, dancing around/ A is bouncing the ball behind the B/ B now turns and dances in the other directior/ B crawls over to a pile of toys and examines them visually/ B has tiny block in hand/ B picks out plastic bag with tiny blocks inside/ A vocalizes and turns B around/ B drops the bag/ B squats in front of the bag and trys to put block ir/a picks up bag and holds it open in front of B/ B puts block in bag/ A closes bag up/ B walks to other part of

106 93 room and picks up another block from floor/ A opens bag/ B reaches into bag with hand not holding block and tries to get a block out/ B takes hand out/ B looks at block in hand and drops it on the floor/ A puts bag into hamper/ B claps hands/ A demonstrates clapping two blocks together/ B watches/ A kneeling in front of B who is standing/ A shows B a package of two crackers/ B touches cracker and sits down A puts a doll between her and B while opening cracker package/ B watches/ A hands B cracker/ B takes/ A points to doll and vocalizes/ B is given another cracker/ A vocalizing and holding doll in front of B/ 3 looking at doll then touching doll's face/ B fingers doll's eyes/ A vocalizing/ B eating cracker and touching doll/ A puts doll to the side/ B looking at doll/ A scoots B forward then lays B on back/ B turns away then sits up and reaches for doll.

107 TABLE 8 FREQUENCY OF RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS REGARDING SEX OF CHILD IN NARRATIVES A N D CLARITY OF THE NARRATIVES Question Narrative A n=8 Narrative B n=8 This written narrative of the actions of a l year old child appears to me to he describing the actions of a boy girl either X_ 6 boy girl either Was this narrative easy to understand? yes yes 8 no no Could you visualize the interactions described in the narrative? yes no 8 yes no _8_ 0

108 APPENDIX B C h ild B ehavior Words C h e c k lis t Table 9 --F e r c e n t and Number o f S u b jects* A p p lic a b ilit y and Sex A ssignm ent R esponses to C h ild B ehavior S tim u lu s Words T able 10--P e r c e n t and Number o f S u b j e c t s Male or Female R esponses to the C h ild B ehavior S tim u lu s Words Chosen to Appear on The C h ild B ehavior R ating S c a le 95

109 96 p a g e 1 CHILD BEHAVIOR WORDS INSTRUCTIONSi A number of descriptive words are listed below. Following the word are two columns, A and B. After reading the word, move to Column A. If you think the word just read would bo descriptive of a behavior you have observed or believe would be observed in a child of approximately lj- years of age check i n the YES column. If you do not think the behavior applies to a li ye ar old, check the HO column. Move on to Column B. If in Column A you thought the word could be used to describe the behavior of a year old, check whether you believe th<j word better describes the behaviors o f a boy or of a girl. Indicate your choice in the appropriate area i n Column 3. If you did not check in Column A, leave Column B blank on each of these items. COLU W A Applic ll yea able to r old COLUMN E Applicable to 1? year old Bov or Girl selfish calm loud intelligent receptive rational pleasant thinks before acting active assertive dependent demanding yes no boy girl yes no boy girl yes no boy girl yes no boy girl yes no boy girl yes no boy girl yes no boy girl yes no boy girl yos no boy girl yes no boy girl yes no boy girl yes no boy girl

110 97 p a g e COLUMN A Applicable to COLUMN B Applicable to 1? year old Bov or Girl outgoing yes no boy girl friendly yes no boy girl kind yes no bcry girl consistent yes no boy girl excitable in minor crises yes no boy gi rl emotional yes no boy girl inquisitive yea no boy girl sturdy yes no boy girl easily makes decisions yeb no t>oy girl passive yes no boy girl aware of feelings of others yes no boy girl impulsive yes no boy girl strong personality yes no boy girl gentle yes no boy girl seeks out new experience yes no boy girl does things without being told yes no boy girl adventurous yes no boy giri"

111 98 p a g e 3 COLUMN A Applicable to I t year old COLUMN B Applicable to 1$ year old Bov or Clrl affectionate yes no boy girl cuddly yes no boy girl never cries yes no boy girl hostile yes 1)0 boy girl competent yes no boy girl talkative yes no boy girl competitive yes no boy girl doesn t care about being in a group yes no toy girl feelings easily hurt yes no boy girl ambitious yes no boy girl coy yes no boy girl careful yes no boy girl delicate yes no boy girl Bhy yes no boy Girl creative yes no boy girl popular yes no boy girl self-confident yes no boy girl

112 99 p a g e 4 COLUMN A Applicable to 1* year old COLUMN P Applicable to 1? year old Boy or Girl secure yes no boy girl tactful yes no boy girl excitable in major crises yes no boy girl independent yes no boy girl easily expresses tender feelings yes no boy girl quiet yes no boy girl easily influenced yes no boy girl playful yes no boy girl logical yes no boy girl anxious yes no boy girl aggressive yes no boy girl cute yes no boy girl rough yes no boy girl never gives up easily yes no boy girl neat yes no boy girl acts as a leader yes no boy girl possessive yes no boy girl

113 100 page 5 COLUMN A Applicable to U year old COLUMN B Applicable to 1J year old Bov or Girl Bociable yes no boy girl cooperative yes no boy girl submissive yes no boy girl alert yes no boy girl never acts as leader yes no boy girl restless yes no boy girl happy yes no boy girl obedient yes no boy girl In addition, if you can think of other descriptive words which would be applicable to the behaviors of a li year old, indicate them below in the space provided. boy boy girl girl boy boy girl girl boy girl THANK YOU

114 TABLE 9 PERCENT AND NUMBER OF SUBJECTS' APPLICABILITY AND SEX ASSIGNMENT RESPONSES TO CHILD BEHAVIOR STIMULUS WORDS Stimulus Words Male Percent Number Female Percent Number Either Male or Female Percent Number Not Applicable Percent Number alert playful 4?.l coy excitable in major crises easily expresses tender feelings affectionate calm delicate competent competitive never cries ?' talkative sturdy intelligent , , loud never gives up easily emotional aware of feelings of others inquisitive popular doesn't care about being in a group active easily makes decisions

115 TABLE 9 continued Either Male Not Male Female or Female Applicable Per Per Per Per Stimulus Words cent Number cent Number cent Number cent Number sociable independent 35* impulsive aggressive ? 5 14, dependent seeks out new experiences neat submissive assertive receptive self-confident happy * selfish thinks before acting ? demanding does things without being told friendly tactful outgoing strong personality rational shy quiet cute 35* gentle easily influenced never acts as leader

116 TABLE 9 continued Stimulus Words Male Percent Number Female Percent Number Either Male or Female Percent Number Not Applicable Percent Number cuddly , obedient 14.? 5 35»3 12 2?* feelings easily hurt consistent l secure 38, creative logical hostile adventurous restless rough excitable in minor crises careful passive *7 6?* anxious cooperative possessive pleasant kind ambitious acts as a leader

117 1 0 4 TABLE 1 0 PERCENT* AND NUMBER OF SUBJECTS* MALE OR FEMALE RESPONSES TO THE CHILD BEHAVIOR STIMULUS WORDS CHOSEN TO APPEAR ON THE CHILD BEHAVIOR RATING SCALE Stimulus Words Male Words in q u is itiv e adventurous a sse rtiv e activ e strong p e rso n a lity aggressive Female Words p leasan t emotional feelin g s e a s ily hurt dependent a ffe c tio n a te cuddly Male Percent Number Female Percent Number 6h h It* h h ho Neutral Sex Words sociable k$ demanding 5k lh h6 12 cute he frie n d ly h possessive h6 12 5k lh shy k * P ercent is calcu lated fo r each word using the to ta l number of responses fo r each word ae the denominator.

118 APPENDIX C C hild Behavior R ating S ca le 105

119 106 Age College Major Are you a parent?. BACKGROUND INFORMATION L ist any experience you have had with year old children below GENERAL EXPERIMENT DESCRIPTION You are going to read two w ritten n arrativ es involving two ch ild ren playing with toys under the supervision of an a s s is ta n t. Read the n a rra tiv e s carefu lly 'because you w ill be asked to describe some of the actions of each ch ild. 1 THE EXPERIMENT The ch ild described in the n arrativ e is about 17 months ( l i years) of age. When you begin reading the n a rra tiv e, you w ill read about th is ch ild playing w ith some demonstration toys selected by a laboratory a s s is ta n t, who w ill be playing w ith the c h ild. Please note the way the child behaves as well as you can so th a t you can describe what th is ch ild is lik e on a q uestionnaire. Please turn to the f i r s t n a rrativ e which begins on the next page. A fter you have completed reading the n a rra tiv e, rin g the b e ll and you w ill be given the questionnaire.

120 1 0? Describe the ch ild on each item, the actions* on the scales below. Describe the ch ild by circlin g * number which is n earest to your idea about the c h ild 's shy / / / / / / / / not shy b ft aggressive / 1 / / / / / / / not aggressive 2 3 i+ 5 & 7 8 a ffe c tio n a te / / / / / / / / not affe ctio n a te b in q u isitiv e / / / / / / / / not in q u isitiv e k ft strong p erso n ality / / / ( / / f / not a strong p e rso n a lity b ft assertiv e / / / / / f / / not a sse rtiv e V ft frien d ly / / / / / / / / not frien d ly b ft cute / / / / / f / not cute I. 5 & 7 ft adventurous / / / / / / / / not adventurous I 2 3 k possessive / / / ( / / / / not possessive k ft active / / / / / / / / not activ e I 2 3 b ft

121 108 Bociable / / / i / / / no t sociable 1 z 3 1* emotional f / / (' / / / / not emotional 1 z 3 i^ cuddly / f / /' / / / / not cuddly 1 z 3 *^ demanding / / / (' / / / C not demanding * a pleasant / / / /' / / / / not p leasan t 1 z 3 i dependent / / / <' / / / / not dependent 1 z 3 > 5 o 7 8 feelings easily hurt / / / {' f / f / feelin g s not e a s ily h u rt * a WHEN YOU HAVE COMPLETED THE SCALE, PLEASE RING THE BELL.

122 109 Pazt-Z The c h ild described in the n a rra tiv e is about 17 months (l years) of age. When you begin reading the n a rra tiv e, you w ill read about th is c h ild playing w ith some dem onstration toys s e le c te d by a lab o rato ry a s s is ta n t, who w ill be playing with the c h ild. Please note the way the c h ild behaves as w ell as you can so th a t you can describe what th is c h ild is lik e on a q u e stio n n a ire. Please tu rn to the second n a rra tiv e which begins on the next page. After you have completed reading the narrative, ring ths bell and you will be given the questionnaire.

123 110 Describe the child on the scales below. Describe the child by circling, on each item, the number which is nearebt to your idea about the child** actions * / / f (' / / / not in q u is itiv e i 2 3 * ti / /. / /' / / f / not cuddly *> / / / /' / / / / not a ffe c tio n a te *y / / / i' / / / / not aggressive J^ ft emotional / f f (' / / / / not emotional ^ ^ 5 7 d soci / / j' / / / / not so ciab le * S / f f <' / / / / not demanding ** dependent / / /,* / / / / not dependent i adventurous / / / 1/ / / / / not adventurous l 2 3 1* / / /,/ / / / t not p le asan t l 2 3 J*

124 a c tiv e L L L L / / Z_ not a c tiv e ? 8 fe e lin g s e a s ily h u rt / / / / / _ fe e lin g s not e a s ily h u rt strong p e rso n a lity /._ / / / / / / / not a strong p erso n ality em otional / / / / / / / / not emotional p le asan t / / / / / / / / not p leasan t ^ 5 o 7 8 possessive / / / / / / / / not possessive o 7 8 aggressive / / / / / / / / not aggressive o 7 8 / 7 I would lik e to receiv e a summary of the study r e s u lts when they have been com pleted. Be sure to f i l l out a m ailing la b e l w ith your name and address l i s t e d so you w ill be assured of rec e iv in g a copy of the summary. The experim enter w ill provide you with a m ailing la b e l. THANK YOU

125 APPENDIX D Consent Form 112

126 113 CONSENT TO SERVE AS A SUBJECT IH RESEARCH I consent to serve as a subject in the research investigation entitled! Validation of the Child Behavior Rating Scale. The nature and general purpose of the research procedure have been explained to me. This research is to be performed by or under the direction of Linda Knight, who is authorized to use the services of others in the performance of the research. I understand that any further inquiries I make concerning this procedure will be answered. I understand my identity will not be revealed in any publication, document, recording, video-tape, photograph, computer data storage, or in any other way which relates to this research. Finally, I understand that I am free to withdraw my consent and discontinue participation at any time following the notification of the Project Director. Signed (Subject) D a t e Time a.m. p.m. Witness Investigator

127 APPENDIX E Explanation o f the Experiment Purpose and S ettin g Given to P o te n tia l Subjects 114

128 115 The fo llo w in g ex p la n a tio n was given to p o te n tia l su b je c ts who were con tacted to p a r tic ip a te in the study* My name i s Linda Knight and I am a Ph.D. candidate in the Department o f Family R ela tio n s and Human Development working on my d is s e r t a t io n. I am d evelop in g a r a tin g s c a le fo r c h ild r e n 's behavior and I am a t a p o in t where v a l i d i t y checks need to be taken. Because you are e n r o lle d in t h is c h ild development course you q u a lify to p a r tic ip a te in t h is research p r o je c t. I am ask in g you to help me out by r a tin g the b ehaviors o f two c h ild r e n. On to the s p e c i f i c s, TIME( The time requ ired o f you i s approxim ately 3 m inutes at your con ven ience. PLACE* S p e c ifie d depending upon U n iv e r s ity. There i s no m ental, p h y s ic a l, or oth er r is k to you. In f a c t, o th ers who have p a r tic ip a te d have enjoyed the exp erien ce and found the ta sk not to be d i f f i c u l t. For your g e n e r o sity in p a r tic ip a tin g, I w i l l send you a summary o f the study r e s u lt s.

129 APPENDIX F Procedures Follow ed in the Research Experiment fo r the V ideotape and W ritten N arrative T ransm ission C onditions 116

130 117 Procedures The procedures fo r the vid eotap e tra n sm issio n c o n d itio n fo llo w s: 1. Before the r a te r a rriv ed, the vid eotap e machine and tape recorder were s e t up. The p ro to co l and a pen were p laced on the r a t e r 's desk. 2. Once the r a t e r a rriv ed, she read and sign ed a con sent form as w e ll as f i l l e d in background in form ation on the f i r s t page of the p r o to c o l. 3* The experim ent d ir e c tio n s were given next w ith the r a te r reading along as a tape record in g r e ite r a te d the d ir e c t io n s. A. The r a te r then viewed the f i r s t v id eo ta p e. 5. A fte r the v id eotap e had run, the r a te r was given in s tr u c tio n s v ia tape record in g as she read along on the p ro to co l fo r com pleting the s c a le. 6. Steps 3* **» 5 were rep eated fo r the second v id eo ta p e. 7. I f the r a te r d esir ed a copy o f the r e s u lt s, she f i l l e d out a m a ilin g la b e l w ith name and address so a copy could be forwarded. 8. L a s tly, r a te r s we re req u ested not to d iscu ss w ith o th ers what they did in the experim ent as such d is c u s s io n may in v a lid a te the r e s u lt s. The procedure fo r the w r itte n n a rra tiv e c o n d itio n fo llo w s: 1. Before the r a te r a rriv ed, the tape recorder was s e t up. The p ro to co l and a pen were placed on the r a t e r 's desk. 2. Once the r a te r a rriv ed, she read and signed a consent form as w ell as f i l l e d in background in form ation on the f i r s t page o f the p r o to c o l. 3. The experim ent d ir e c tio n s were given next w ith the r a te r reading along as a tape record in g r e ite r a te d the d ir e c t io n s. A. A fter th ese d ir e c tio n s were g iv en, the experim enter added three more item s, a. The r a te r was to ld she could u n d erlin e or mark on the p ro to co l i f she w ished.

131 b. The r a te r was t o ld th a t the paragraphs in the n a rra tiv e were d ivid ed by the c h ild 's change in a c t i v i t y. c. The r a te r was to ld she could take as l i t t l e or lon g a p erio d o f time as she f e l t n ecessa ry. The r a te r then read the f i r s t n a r r a tiv e. When the r a te r fin is h e d reading the n a r r a tiv e, she was g iv en d ir e c tio n s v ia tape record in g as she read alon g on the p ro to co l fo r com pleting the s c a le. Steps 3» 5t 6 were repeated fo r the second n a r r a tiv e. I f the r a te r d esired a copy o f the r e s u l t s, she f i l l e d out a m a ilin g la b e l w ith name and address so a copy could be forwarded. L a s tly, r a te r s were requ ested not to d isc u ss w ith others what they did in the experim ent as such d is c u s s io n may in v a lid a te the r e s u lt s.

132 APPENDIX G Table 11--D e s c r ip tio n o f Groups' Treatment C onditions Showing Sex Label W ithin The M atrix x Order o f P re sen ta tio n x C hild A or B x Communication Mode 119

133 TABLE 11 DESCRIPTION OF GROUPS TREATMENT CONDITIONS SHOWING SEX LABEL WITHIN THE MATRIX X ORDER OF PRESENTATION X CHILD A OR B X COMMUNICATION MODE Order of Tape or Narrative Presentation S sees or reads S sees or reads of child of child Transmission Group <A> i B) (A) Conditions Humber 1 st 2nd 1st 2nd Videotape 1 male female Videotape 2 female male Videotape 3 male female Videotape I* female male Videotape 5 ch ild child Videotape 6 child ch ild Videotape 7 child child Videotape 8 child child W ritten N arrative 9 male female W ritten N arrative 10 female male W ritten N arrative 11 male female W ritten N arrative 12 female male W ritten N arrative 13 ch ild ch ild W ritten N arrative 1^ child child W ritten N arrative 15 ch ild ch ild W ritten N arrative 16 child child

134 APPENDIX H Approval Form Human Subject Review Committee 121

135 Protocol No. 77B 250 Original Review Continuing Review Q THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS PROPOSED USE OF HUMAN SUBJECTS: ACTION OF THE REVIEW COMMITTEE The Behavioral Sciences Review Comnittee has taken the following action: x 1. Approve 2. Approve with Conditions 3. Disapprove with regard to the employment of human subjects in the proposed research entitled: Validation of Child Behavior Rating Scale Jean 0. Pickerscheid/Linda Knight is listed as the principal Invest!qator. The conditions, if any, are attached and are signed by the committee chairperson and by the principal investiqator. If disapproved, the reasons are attached and are signed by the conrnittee chairperson. It ie the r e s p o n s ib ility o f the p rin c ip a l in v e s tig a to r to re ta in a aopy o f each signed consent form fo r a t le a s t four (4) years beyond the term ination o f the su b je c t's p a r tic ip a tio n in the proposed a c t i v i t y. Should the prin cip a l in v e s tig a to r leave the U n iversity, signed consent forms are to be tra n sferred to the Bwnan Subject Review Committee fo r the req u ired reten tion period. Date Hay 6, 1977 Signed (Chairperson)

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