Part III: Planes, Trains, and Automobiles: Making Heat Work for You

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1 Contents at a Glance Introduction... 1 Part I: Covering the Basics in Thermodynamics... 7 Chapter 1: Thermodynamics in Everyday Life...9 Chapter 2: Laying the Foundation of Thermodynamics...15 Chapter 3: Working with Phases and Properties of Substances...39 Chapter 4: Work and Heat Go Together Like Macaroni and Cheese...57 Part II: Employing the Laws of Thermodynamics Chapter 5: Using the First Law in Closed Systems...77 Chapter 6: Using the First Law in Open Systems...91 Chapter 7: Governing Heat Engines and Refrigerators with the Second Law Chapter 8: Entropy Is the Demise of the Universe Chapter 9: Analyzing Systems Using the Second Law of Thermodynamics Part III: Planes, Trains, and Automobiles: Making Heat Work for You Chapter 10: Working with Carnot and Brayton Cycles Chapter 11: Working with Otto and Diesel Cycles Chapter 12: Working with Rankine Cycles Chapter 13: Cooling Off with Refrigeration Cycles Part IV: Handling Thermodynamic Relationships, Reactions, and Mixtures Chapter 14: Understanding the Behavior of Real Gases Chapter 15: Mixing Gases That Don t React with Each Other Chapter 16: Burning Up with Combustion COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL Part V: The Part of Tens Chapter 17: Ten Famous Names in Thermodynamics Chapter 18: Ten More Cycles of Note Appendix: Thermodynamic Property Tables Index

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3 Table of Contents Introduction... 1 About This Book...1 Conventions Used in This Book...2 What You re Not to Read...2 Foolish Assumptions...3 How This Book Is Organized...3 Part I: Covering the Basics in Thermodynamics...3 Part II: Employing the Laws of Thermodynamics...4 Part III: Planes, Trains, and Automobiles: Making Heat Work for You...4 Part IV: Handling Thermodynamic Relationships, Reactions, and Mixtures...5 Part V: The Part of Tens...5 Icons Used in This Book...5 Where to Go from Here...6 Part I: Covering the Basics in Thermodynamics... 7 Chapter 1: Thermodynamics in Everyday Life Grasping Thermodynamics...9 Examining Energy s Changing Forms...10 Kinetic energy...11 Potential energy...11 Internal energy...11 Watching Energy and Work in Action...12 Engines: Letting energy do work...12 Refrigeration: Letting work move heat...13 Getting into Real Gases, Gas Mixtures, and Combustion Reactions...13 Discovering Old Names and New Ways of Saving Energy...14 Chapter 2: Laying the Foundation of Thermodynamics Defining Important Thermodynamic Properties...16 Eyeing general measurement basics...16 Mass...17 Pressure...18 Temperature...19 Density...21 Energy...22 Enthalpy...27 Specific heat...27 Entropy...29

4 x Thermodynamics For Dummies Understanding Thermodynamic Processes...29 Creating a path for a process...30 Finding the state at each end of a path: The state postulate...31 Connecting processes to make a cycle...32 Discovering Nature s Law and Order on Temperature, Energy, and Entropy...34 The zeroth law on temperature...34 The first law on energy conservation...35 The second law on entropy...36 The third law on absolute zero...37 Chapter 3: Working with Phases and Properties of Substances It s Just a Phase: Describing Solids, Liquids, and Gases...40 The phase diagram...41 The T-v diagram...42 The P-v diagram...44 Knowing How Phase Changes Occur...45 From compressed liquid to saturated liquid...46 From saturated liquid to saturated vapor...47 From saturated vapor to superheated vapor...50 Finding Thermodynamic Properties from Tables...50 Figuring out linear interpolation...51 Interpolating with two variables...52 Good Gases Have Ideal Behavior...54 Chapter 4: Work and Heat Go Together Like Macaroni and Cheese Work Can Do Great Things...58 Working with springs...59 Turning a shaft...61 Accelerating a car...62 Moving with pistons...63 Figuring out boundary work...66 Heating Things Up, Cooling Things Down...67 Getting hot with boilers...68 Cooling off with condensers...70 Chilling with evaporators...71 Part II: Employing the Laws of Thermodynamics Chapter 5: Using the First Law in Closed Systems Conserving Mass in a Closed System...77 Balancing Energy in a Closed System...78

5 Table of Contents xi Applying the First Law to Ideal-Gas Processes...81 Working with constant volume...81 Working with constant pressure...82 Working with constant temperature...85 Working with an adiabatic process...86 Applying the First Law to Processes with Liquids and Solids...88 Chapter 6: Using the First Law in Open Systems Conserving Mass in an Open System...91 Defining mass and volumetric flow rates...92 Applying conservation of mass to a system...93 Balancing Mass and Energy in a System...94 When Time Stands Still: The Steady State Process...95 Using the First Law on Four Common Open-System Processes...97 Flowing through nozzles and diffusers...98 Working with pumps, compressors, and turbines Moving energy with heat exchangers Reducing pressure with throttling valves When Time Is of the Essence: The Transient Process Making assumptions for the energy balance Analyzing a transient process Chapter 7: Governing Heat Engines and Refrigerators with the Second Law Looking at the Impact of the Second Law Defining Thermal Energy Reservoirs Parameters of a thermal reservoir Considering highs and lows Working with the Kelvin-Planck Statement on Heat Engines Characterizing heat engines Determining thermal efficiency Chilling with the Clausius Statement on Refrigeration Characterizing refrigerators Finding the coefficient of performance Chapter 8: Entropy Is the Demise of the Universe What Is Entropy? Taking a microscopic view of entropy Looking at entropy on a macroscopic level Coping with the Increase in Entropy Principle Working with T-s Diagrams Using T-ds Relationships Calculating Entropy Change For pure substances For liquids and solids For ideal gases...136

6 xii Thermodynamics For Dummies Analyzing Isentropic Processes Using constant specific heat Using relative pressure and relative volume Balancing Entropy in a System Chapter 9: Analyzing Systems Using the Second Law of Thermodynamics Measuring Work Potential with Energy Availability Determining the Change in Availability Calculating availability in closed systems Calculating availability in open systems with steady flow Calculating availability in open systems with transient flow Balancing the Availability of a System Transferring availability using work processes Transferring availability with heat transfer processes Transferring availability with mass flow Understanding the Decrease in Availability Principle Figuring Out Reversible Work and Irreversibility Calculating the Second-Law Efficiency of a System Part III: Planes, Trains, and Automobiles: Making Heat Work for You Chapter 10: Working with Carnot and Brayton Cycles Analyzing the Ideal Heat Engine: The Carnot Cycle Examining the four processes in a Carnot cycle Calculating Carnot efficiency Working with the Ideal Gas Turbine Engine: The Brayton Cycle Examining the four processes in a Brayton cycle Analyzing the Brayton cycle Determining Brayton cycle efficiency Calculating Brayton cycle irreversibility Improving the Brayton Cycle with Regeneration Adding Intercooling and Reheating to the Brayton Cycle Looking at how intercooling and reheating affect the Brayton cycle Analyzing the effects of intercooling and reheating Deviating from Ideal Behavior: Actual Brayton Cycle Performance Flying the Brayton Cycle in Jet Propulsion Seeing what happens in an ideal turbojet cycle Analyzing the jet engine cycle...194

7 Table of Contents xiii Chapter 11: Working with Otto and Diesel Cycles Understanding the Basics of Reciprocating Engines Working with the Ideal Spark Ignition Engine: The Otto Cycle Analyzing the Otto cycle Calculating Otto cycle efficiency Calculating Otto cycle irreversibility Working with the Ideal Compression Ignition Engine: The Diesel Cycle Examining the four processes in a Diesel cycle Analyzing the Diesel cycle Calculating diesel cycle efficiency Calculating diesel cycle irreversibility Chapter 12: Working with Rankine Cycles Understanding the Basics of the Rankine Cycle Examining the Four Processes of the Rankine Cycle Analyzing the Cycle Using Steam Tables Calculating Rankine cycle efficiency Calculating Rankine cycle irreversibility Improving the Rankine Cycle with Reheat Improving the Rankine Cycle with Regeneration Deviating from Ideal Behavior: Actual Rankine Cycle Performance Chapter 13: Cooling Off with Refrigeration Cycles Understanding the Basics of Refrigeration Cycles Chilling with the Reverse Brayton Cycle Examining the four processes of the reverse Brayton cycle Analyzing the cycle with constant specific heat Calculating the reverse Brayton cycle coefficient of performance Calculating irreversibility for Brayton s refrigerator Cooling with the Vapor-Compression Refrigerator Examining the four processes in a vaporcompression refrigerator Analyzing the cycle with refrigerant property tables Calculating the vapor-compression refrigerator coefficient of performance Calculating vapor-compression refrigerator irreversibility Warming Up with Heat Pumps Examining the four processes in a heat pump Analyzing a heat pump Calculating the heat pump coefficient of performance Calculating heat pump irreversibility...263

8 xiv Thermodynamics For Dummies Part IV: Handling Thermodynamic Relationships, Reactions, and Mixtures Chapter 14: Understanding the Behavior of Real Gases Deviating from Ideal-Gas Behavior: Real-Gas Behavior Determining Properties with the Compressibility Factor Using reduced temperature and pressure Using pseudo-reduced volume Finding Pressure with van der Waals Chapter 15: Mixing Gases That Don t React with Each Other Determining Thermodynamic Properties for a Mixture of Gases Using mass and molar fractions for gas mixtures Finding properties of a gas mixture Getting the Compressibility Factor for Real-Gas Mixtures Making assumptions for mixture compressibility factors Finding compressibility factors with Amagat s law Finding compressibility factors with Dalton s law Calculating compressibility factors with Kay s Rule Working with Psychrometrics: Air and Water Vapor Mixtures Finding the wet-bulb temperature with a sling psychrometer It s muggy out there: Calculating specific and relative humidity My glasses are fogging up: Defining the dew point Working out problems with temperature and humidity Using the psychrometric chart Making Life Comfortable with Air Conditioning Heating and humidifying the air Cooling and dehumidifying the air Chapter 16: Burning Up with Combustion Forming Combustion Reaction Equations Figuring out how much air you need: Writing stoichiometric reaction equations Accounting for excess air in combustion Defining Combustion-Related Thermodynamic Properties Enthalpy of formation Enthalpy of combustion Using the First Law of Thermodynamics on Steady-Flow Combustion Systems Analyzing an Example Steady-Flow System Using the First Law of Thermodynamics on Closed Combustion Systems Analyzing an Example Closed System...318

9 Table of Contents xv Ouch! That s Hot: Determining the Adiabatic Flame Temperature Figuring Out an Example Adiabatic Flame Temperature Part V: The Part of Tens Chapter 17: Ten Famous Names in Thermodynamics George Brayton Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot Anders Celsius Rudolf Diesel Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit James Prescott Joule Nikolaus August Otto William John Macquorn Rankine William Thomson or Lord Kelvin James Watt Chapter 18: Ten More Cycles of Note Two-Stroke Engines Wankel Engines The Stirling Cycle The Ericsson Cycle The Atkinson Cycle The Miller Cycle The Absorption Cycle The Einstein Cycle Combined-Cycle Engines Binary Vapor Cycles Appendix Index

10 xvi Thermodynamics For Dummies

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