Steven W. Van Sciver. Helium Cryogenics. Second Edition. 4) Springer

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1 Steven W. Van Sciver Helium Cryogenics Second Edition 4) Springer

2 Contents 1 Cryogenic Principles and Applications Temperature Scale Historical Background Applications for Cryogenics Thermodynamic Laws First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics Third Law of Thermodynamics 14 Further Readings 16 2 Low-Temperature Materials Properties Heat Capacity Lattice Heat Capacity Electronic Heat Capacity Heat Capacity of Special Materials Thermal Contraction Conductivities: Electrical and Thermal Electrical Resistivity of Metals Magneto-Resistance in Metals Electrical Conductivity of Semiconductors Thermal Conductivity of Metals Lattice Thermal Conductivity Contact Resistance Mechanical Properties Superconductivity Type I Superconductivity Type II Superconductivity 50 References 56 Further Readings 57 xi

3 xii Contents 3 Helium as a Classical Fluid Helium Phase Diagram Gaseous Helium Intermolecular Interactions Virial Expansion Empirical Equations of State State Properties of Liquid He I Density Thermal Properties Vapor Pressure Surface Tension Transport Properties of Gaseous and Liquid He I Modeling Transport Properties Transport Properties 79 References 84 Further Readings 84 4 Classical Helium Fluid Mechanics Single Phase Internat Flow General Considerations One Dimensional Internat Flow Supercritical Helium Compressible Fluid Mechanics Experimental Confirmation Helium Two-Phase Flow Flow Regimes and Transitions Pressure Drop Correlations Natural Circulation Loops Flow Through Porous Media 108 References 113 Further Readings Classical Helium Heat Transfer Regimes of Heat Transfer Convective Heat Transfer Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer Nucleation Theory Heat Transfer Correlations Maximum Nucleate Boiling Heat Flux Film Boiling Minimum Film Boiling Heat Flux Heat Transfer Correlations Surface Effects Channel Heat Transfer 140

4 Contents 5.7 Forced Convection Heat Transfer General Considerations Heat Transfer Correlations Two Phase Flow Heat Transfer Transient Heat Transfer Surface Temperature Difference Transition to Film Boiling 157 References 159 Further Readings Helium as a Quantum Fluid Ideal Quantum Gases Density of an Ideal Bose Gas Internal Energy of an Ideal Bose Gas Specific Heat of an Ideal Bose Gas Vapor Pressure of an Ideal Bose Gas Latent Heat of an Ideal Bose Gas Liquid He II Properties State Properties of He II Transport Properties of He II Fountain Effect Excitations in He II Two-Fluid Model Equations of Motion Thermomechanical Effect Sound Propagation Viscous Flow Heat Transport Vortices and Turbulence in He II Helium II in Rotation Critical Velocities Mutual Friction Steady-State Heat Transport Forced Convection Heat Transport Attenuation of Second Sound Development of Turbulence Second Sound Shock 222 References 225 Further Readings He II Heat and Mass Transfer Steady-State He II Heat Transport in Wide Channels He II Heat Conductivity Function Peak Heat Flux in Wide Channels Peak Heat Flux in Saturated He II 335

5 xiv Contents He II Heat Transfer in Cylindrical Geometries Static Bath He II Heat Exchangers He II Two Phase Heat Transfer and Flow Transient Heat Transport in Wide Channels He II Diffusion Equation Analytic Solution Methods Numerical Solution of the He II Diffusion Equation Forced Convection Heat Transport in Wide Channels He II Energy Equation Steady State Heat Transport: Analytic Solution Pressure Drop in Turbulent He II He II Joule Thomson Effect Transient Heat Transport in Forced Flow He II: Numerical Solution Heat and Mass Transfer in Porous Media Steady Laminar Heat Transport in He II He II Heat and Mass Transfer Through Porous Media He II Fountain Pumps He II Vapor: Liquid Phase Separators Kapitza Conductance Phonon Radiation Limit Acoustic Mismatch Theory Small Heat Flux Kapitza Conductance (AT<T) Large Heat Flux Kapitza Conductance (ATZT) Film Boiling Heat Transfer Film Boiling Heat Transfer Experiments Theoretical Models for Film Boiling Heat Transfer Transient Film Boiling Heat Transfer 307 References 311 Further Readings Liquefaction and Refrigeration Systems Ideal Liquefaction First Law of Steady Flows Isenthalpic Expansion Joule Thomson Effect Joule Thomson Coefficient of Real Gases Joule Thomson Liquefier Cascade JT Liquefier He II JT Liquefier Isentropic Expansion Claude Liquefier Collins Helium Liquefaction System 349

6 Contents xv 8.5 Closed Cycle Refrigeration Isothermal Refrigeration Isobaric Refrigeration Regenerative Referigeration Cycles Stirling Cycle Gifford McMahon Cycle Pulse Tube Cryocoolers Hybrid Helium Liquefiers Nonideal Refrigeration Components Refrigeration Technology Summary 371 References 375 Further Readings He and Refrigeration Below 1 K Properties of Pure 3He He-4He Mixtures and Dilution Refrigeration Statistical Models for Pure 3He Submillikelvin Refrigeration Superfluid 3He 388 References 392 Further Readings Special Topics in Helium Cryogenics Thermal Insulation Solid Conduction Gas Conduction Radiation Heat Transfer Multilayer Insulation (MLI) Powder Insulations Helium Adsorption Adsorption Thermodynamics Physical Properties of Helium Films Magnetic Refrigeration Paramagnetic Materials Thermodynamics of Magnetic Refrigeration Continuous Magnetic Refrigerators Nuclear Demagnetization 426 References 428 Further Readings 429 Appendix 1 Compressibility Factor for Helium 431 Appendix 2 Properties of Liquid Helium 435 Appendix 3 He II Heat Conductivity Function 447

7 xvi Contents Appendix 4 Temperature-Entropy Diagrams for Helium 449 Appendix 5 T-S Diagrams in He II Region 451 Appendix 6 Helium T-S Diagrams 455 Index 461 About the Author 469

Appendix 1 Compressibility Factor for Helium

Appendix 1 Compressibility Factor for Helium Appendix 1 Compressibility Factor for Helium S.W. Van Sciver, Helium Cryogenics, International Cryogenics Monograph Series, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-9979-5, # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012 431

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