Par$cles. Ma#er is made of atoms. Atoms are made of leptons and quarks. Leptons. Quarks. atom nucleus nucleon quark m m m m

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1 Par$cles Ma#er is made of atoms atom nucleus nucleon quark m m m m Atoms are made of leptons and quarks Leptons ν e e Quarks u d

2 What Have We Learned? Rela?vis?c Quantum Mechanics is a good framework for describing nature The universe is made of: Quarks: Leptons: Gauge bosons: Anything else?

3 Par$cles and Forces Leptons Strong Electromagnetic Tau Electric Charge -1 0 Tau Neutrino Gluons (8) Photon Muon -1 0 Muon Neutrino Quarks Electron -1 0 Electron Neutrino Mesons Baryons Nuclei Atoms Light Chemistry Electronics Bottom Quarks Electric Charge -1/3 2/3 Top Gravitational Graviton? Bosons (W +,W -,Z) Weak Strange -1/3 2/3 Charm Down -1/3 2/3 each quark: R, B, Up G 3 colors Solar system Galaxies Black holes Neutron decay Beta radioactivity Neutrino interactions Burning of the sun

4 Mass Spectrum 1 TeV 1 GeV Masses Leptons Quarks top quark as heavy as Tungsten 1 MeV 1 ev Three light ν s summed masses ev ν s e μ τ u d s c b t Why do the fermions have a mass spectrum which stretches over almost six orders of magnitude between the electron and the top quark? Including neutrino masses the mass spectrum stretches over thirteen orders of magnitude. We have no concrete understanding of the mass spectrum.

5 These are all we see around us in everyday life but the others are crucial to defining what we are. Par$cle Masses

6 Fundamental Forces Force Strengths: Quan?fied by coupling constants Strong: α s ~ 1 Electromagne?c: α em ~ 1/137 Weak: α W ~ 10-6 Gravity: α g ~ EM force Weak force Electric charge (1) Weak charge (2) α = g2 4π Strong force Colour charge (3) Massless photon Coupling g Only charged par?cles couple Massive W ±,Z Coupling g W Only lew handed par?cles couple 8 massless gluons Coupling g s Only quarks couple

7 Weak Interac$on Muon decay: Strength of weak force ~ G F ~ 10-5 GeV - 2 cf. strength of EM force ~ 0.01 W- µ ν µ _ ν e e- W boson massive Factor involved in boson exchange ~ 1/(E 2 +M 2 ) (hence units) Strength of weak force = EM force if M~ 30 GeV (M W ~80 GeV)

8 Weak Interac$on _ ν e W couples to: Upper and lower members of a fermion genera?on. L- (R- ) handed (an?)par?cles d W- u e- Z couples to: Ma#er and an?ma#er versions of a fermion. Complicated mix of L-, R- par?cles. q Z e+ _ q e- vector, axial couplings ; Higgs mechanism

9 Hadrons Quarks only exist in color neutral combina?ons red- green- blue blue - an?blue green - an?green red - an?red Baryons (e.g. proton) Mesons (e.g. π ) u u u d u

10 Hadrons There are hundreds of baryons and mesons. See the online Par?cle Data Book for the full list: h#p://pdg.lbl.gov Charmonium (charm- an?charm) Upsilon (beauty- an?beauty) c c b b

11 Mesons Many types Many decay modes Some are long lived, i.e., > 10 8 s Massive short life Detec?on Long lived Interac?ons with detector ma#er Short lived Calcula?ng combined masses using detected par?cles

12 The Charm Quark Discovered at Stanford in e + e - collisions and at Brookhaven, NY in p Be collisions, at exactly the same?me, Nov The charm- an?charm meson decays shortly awer produc?on electron c positron c

13 The Beauty Quark Over the last decade, SLAC and KEK (a lab in Japan), produced about _ a billion beauty- an?beauty quarks in e + e - collisions, in the form of B and B mesons (hence the name of the SLAC detector, BaBar). Small differences between B and B decays may help us understand why there is a ma#er- an?ma#er asymmetry in the universe today, although to date they mainly confirm the Standard Model explana?on (Kobayashi+Maskawa, Nobel Prize 2008), which cannot produce a large enough asymmetry. d b b d B 0 _ B 0

14 The Top Quark Was postulated in 1973 by Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa to explain the observed CP viola?on in kaon decays. Discovered 1995 by the CDF and DØ experiments at Fermilab. Top quark (proton) an?quark (an?proton) An?- top

15 An$maGer The combina?on of special rela?vity and Quantum Mechanics leads to a new en?ty - an?ma#er Einstein s equa?on of mo?on: Two energy solu?ons for the same mass: Ma#er - An?ma#er E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 electron S=+1/2 + An?- electron Positron - 1/3 S=+1/2 +1/3 S=- 1/2 S=- 1/2 quark an?quark Every fermion has an an?ma#er version. An?- electron/ quark has opposite charge to electron/quark but the same mass. Also: an?quark q, an?muon µ + _, an?neutrino ν

16 An$maGer Ma#er and an?ma#er is created/annihilated in pairs Photon We can collide ma#er with an?ma#er to make other ma#er/an?ma#er pairs

17 MaGer- An$maGer Collisions Can collide electrons and positrons in storage rings. Example of a collider experiment. Electron- positron annihila?on: e + + e - γ + γ γ The Universe evolved from the Big Bang e + e - γ Two back- to- back γ each with 1/2 of the total available energy Crea?ng a packet of pure energy replicates the condi?ons at s awer crea?on (we are now at s). Understanding par?cle physics at these high energies helps understand how the universe evolved from early?mes.

18 MaGer- An$maGer Collisions It is possible to accelerate protons and an?protons to much greater energies than electrons and positrons. This effec?vely makes a quark- an?quark collider. proton An?- proton u u u u d d

19 Proton- An$proton Collisions Fermilab (Chicago) 980 GeV protons GeV an?protons 4 miles circumference The CDF detector

20 The Large Hadron Collider The LHC at CERN, Geneva. 27 km circumference, extends across France- Switzerland border. Proton- proton collisions at 7000 GeV GeV. World s highest energy collider

21 Proton- Proton Collisions 7 TeV 7 TeV

22 The Standard Model also missing: dark ma#er (if it is an elementary par?cle) + an? quarks an? leptons spin 1/2 spin 1 not included: the graviton (spin 2) quantum theory à strings?

23 The Standard Model Very successful model which contains all known par?cles in par?cle physics today. Describes the interac?on between spin 1/2 par?cles (quarks and leptons) mediated by spin 1 gauge bosons (gauge symmetry). Standard Model unifies electromagne?c and weak forces and includes the strong force as well Based on SU(3) x SU(2) x U(1) symmetry group Does not say anything about gravity Gravita?onal force much too small, 35 orders of magnitude Simple Lagrangian formalism describes this very well but only for massless par5cles The equa?ons only made sense if all the bosons, and all the quarks and leptons, had no mass and moved at the speed of light!

24 What is Mass To Newton: F = ma, W = mg (measure of iner?a) To Einstein: E = mc 2 Mass curves space?me All of this is correct. But how do objects become massive? While developing the modern theory of fundamental forces and interac?ons, physicists hit a snag Par?cles that carry forces had to be massless but the data seemed to say otherwise! Massless par?cles move at the speed of light If par?cle has momentum p then E 2 =(mc 2 ) 2 +(pc) 2 So, for a massless par?cle E=pc Suppose there is a force field filling the universe that somehow slows par?cles down to below the speed of light? This would make them have mass!

25 Higgs Field Interac$on Massive Particle

26 Higgs Field The problem leading to the Higgs boson was firstly about the masses of the quanta of the weak force. Key postulate of the Higgs mechanism: A new force field, the Higgs field, has an average value in the vacuum that becomes non- zero as the early universe cooled. Jargon: Spontaneous broken symmetry Non- zero average value of the Higgs field can also give masses to the fundamental fermions (quarks, electrons, muons, etc.) Note: For composite objects such as proton, mass is m=e/c 2, where E includes all the energies of the cons?tuents. Most of mass of proton comes from kine?c energies of its cons?tuents not their masses.

27 The Standard Model Quarks and leptons are classified according to their mass, electrical charge, and their quantum numbers, such as flavors and lepton number, and are divided into three groups, so- called genera?ons.

28 Standard Model Interac$ons The interaction of gauge bosons with fermions is described by the Standard Model Gluons massless Photon massless W +, W - very massive Z 0 very massive

29 Units Energy: in units of ev: Corresponds to the energy gained by charge of a single electron moved across a poten?al difference of one volt. 1 ev = (35) J This comes from electrosta?c par?cle accelerators. Unit of mass m: we use è Unit of mass is ev/c 2 Unit of momentum p: with è Unit of momentum is ev/c

30 Put: Units Unless otherwise specified, we will use natural units = c = 1 Units of energy, mass, momentum: ev, MeV, GeV 1 ev = J Units of space,?me: 1/E Conversions: time = distance c Energy = time Mass: GeV GeV -1 ( m p c 2 ) = 1 GeV Size of a proton: ~GeV -1 LHC energy: 8000 GeV Lecture time: ~10 27 GeV -1

31 Units Our scale Length m Mass kg Time s Energy kg m 2 s - 2 Par$cle Physics Length fm Mass ev/c 2 Time s Energy ev Interna?onal Unit System Convert 1 ev = 1.6 x J 1 GeV = 10 9 ev 1 TeV = 10 3 GeV 1 fm = m 1kg = m = s = GeV GeV 15 1 GeV 24 1 Energy : Length : Speed of light : Reduced Plank Constant : 1 ev = J 1 fm = m = 1 Fermi c = ms - 1! = J s

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