Optimised versions of the Ate and Twisted Ate Pairings

Transcription

1 Optimised versions of the Ate and Twisted Ate Pairings Seiichi Matsuda 1, Naoki Kanayama 1, Florian Hess 2, and Eiji Okamoto 1 1 University of Tsukuba, Japan 2 Technische Universität Berlin, Germany Abstract. The Ate pairing and the twisted Ate pairing for ordinary elliptic curves which are generalizations of the η T pairing for supersingular curves have previously been proposed. It is not necessarily the case that both pairings are faster than the Tate pairing. In this paper we propose optimized versions of the Ate and twisted Ate pairings with the loop reduction method and show that both pairings are always at least as fast as the Tate pairing. We also provide suitable families of elliptic curves that our optimized Ate and optimized twisted Ate pairings can be computed with half the loop length compared to the Tate pairing. 1 Introduction In 2000, Sakai et al [14] proposed an ID-based key agreement protocol using a bilinear pairing, and pairing-based cryptosystems became one of the most attractive areas of research in elliptic curve cryptography. Famous examples are Identity Based Encryption [5] and Short Signature [6]. Using a bilinear pairing, one can construct a nonconventional protocol and reduce the bandwidth. The pairing computation, however, takes up much more computational costs than main cryptographic primitives such as modular exponentiation or scalar multiplication over elliptic curves, so an efficient algorithm for computing the pairing presents an important issue in pairing-based cryptography. Some leading algorithms of computing pairing have been proposed. Such examples are an efficient algorithm called the BKLS algorithm [2] which was proposed, and the new pairing on a supersingular (hyper)elliptic curve over a finite field of characteristic p which was proposed by Duursma et al a year later [8]. Barreto et al [1] generalized this pairing over supersingular curves with trace t to be the η pairing and proposed the η T pairing, where T = t 1, that can be computed with half the loop length compared to the η pairing. For these results, they consider pairings on G 1 G 2, where G 1 = E(F q )[r], G 2 = E(F q k)[r]. Hess et al [11] extended η T pairing over an ordinary curve and proposed the Ate pairing on G 2 G 1 and the twisted Ate pairing on G 1 G 2. Note that the latter can only be faster than the Tate pairing when T e r using a twist E /F q e. In this paper, we propose an optimized version of the Ate and twisted Ate pairing which can be more efficiently computed than the standard Ate and twisted Ate pairing if certain conditions are met. We provide some families of elliptic curves for which these conditions are satisfied.

2 2 Background 2.1 Tate pairing Let F q be a finite field with q = p m elements where p is prime and let E be an elliptic curve defined over F q. Denote subgroup order by r such that r E(F q ) and the embedding degree by k such that the smallest positive integer with r q k 1. Let P E(F q )[r] and Q E(F q k), and consider the divisor D = (Q+R) (R) with R a random point in E(F q k). For every integer a, let f a,p be a function with divisor div(f a,p ) = a(p ) (ap ) (a 1)(O), then the Tate pairing is a well-defined, nondegenerate, bilinear pairing { E(F q )[r] E(F q k)/re(f q k) F q /(F, r : k q ) r k (P, Q) P, Q r = f r,p (D) We will require a unique element of F q k for pairing-based protocols, so one may define the reduced Tate pairing as e(p, Q) = P, Q (qk 1)/r r = f r,p (Q) (qk 1)/r Galbraith et al [10] shows that r can be replaced by any integer N such that r N q k 1, i.e. e(p, Q) = f N,P (Q) (qk 1)/N One can compute f r,p (Q) using Miller s algorithm. If k is even, then vertical line g ap through ap can be ignored due to the final powering operation. Miller s Algorithm INPUT: P E(F p )[r], Q E(F p k)/re(f p k) OUTPUT: f F p k f 1, V P and n = r 1 for i log 2 n 1 downto 0 do f f 2 g V,V (Q)/g 2V (Q) and V 2V if n i = 1 then f f g V,P (Q)/g V +P (Q) and V V + P return f 2.2 η and η T pairing For P E(F q )[r], Q E(F q k)[r] where E is a supersingular curve with distortion map ψ, there exists an automorphism γ such that γψ q (P ) = ψ(p ). For M = (q k 1)/N, T Z, the following equation holds: ( P, ψ(q) M N ) L = (η T (P, Q) M ) at a 1, where a N, L, c Z, T a + 1 = LN, T = q + cn. Barreto et al [1] have proposed the η pairing for T = q on the above definition and also introduced improved version of it with the choice T = q N and refer to the pairing as η T pairing. Since T = q N = t 1, the η T pairing can be computed with half the loop length compared to the η pairing. 2

3 2.3 Ate pairing Let Frobenius endomorphism π q : E E : (x, y) (x q, y q ) and let G 1 = E[r] Ker(π q [1]), G 2 = E[r] Ker(π q [q]). Denote the group order of the elliptic curve by E(F q ) = q+1 t and let T = t 1. Let N = gcd(t k 1, q k 1), T k 1 = LN. For Q G 2, P G 1, we have the Ate pairing: a T : (Q, P ) f T,Q (P ) c T (q k 1)/N where c T = k 1 i=0 T k 1 i q i kq k 1 mod r. The Ate pairing is nondegenerate for r L and bilinear. One can compute f T,Q (P ) using Miller s algorithm with loop length log 2 T. If q r and the average size of trace equals to q, the Ate pairing can be computed with half the loop length compared to the Tate pairing. 2.4 Twist Let E and E be two ordinary elliptic curves over F q with q = p n and p 5. E is called a twist of degree d of E if there exists an isomorphism ψ : E E defined over F q and d is minimal. We remark that the condition k Aut(E) holds true if and only if E admits a twist of degree k. Let D F q, then the twists corresponding to D mod (F q) d are given by d = 2 E : y 2 = x 3 + ax + b, d = 4 E : y 2 = x 3 + a/d 2 x + b/d 3, ψ : E E : (x, y) (Dx, D 3/2 y), E : y 2 = x 3 + ax, E : y 2 = x 3 + a/dx, ψ : E E : (x, y) (D 1/2 x, D 3/4 y), d = 3, 6 E : y 2 = x 3 + b, 2.5 Twisted Ate pairing E : y 2 = x 3 + b/d, ψ : E E : (x, y) (D 1/3 x, D 1/2 y). Let E be an elliptic curve admitting a unique twist E of degree m over F q e for m = gcd(k, Aut(E)) and e = k/m. One can alternatively represent G 2 as G 2 = E[r] Ker([ζ m ]πq e 1) where ζ m is the primitive mth root of unity such that [ζ m ] : (x, y) (ζmx, 2 ζmy). 3 For P G 1, Q G 2, we have the twisted Ate pairing: a twist T e : (P, Q) f T e,p (Q) c T e (qk 1)/N where c T e = m 1 i=0 T e(m 1 i) q ei kq k 1 mod r. The Ate pairing is nondegenerate for r L and bilinear. Note that this pairing can only be faster than the Tate pairing when T e r. 3

4 3 Optimized versions of Ate and twisted Ate pairings We can regard the optimized versions of Ate and twisted Ate pairing as an η T pairing. Let E be an ordinary elliptic curve over F q and let P G 1 and Q G 2 such that G 1 = E[r] Ker(π q [1]) and G 2 = E[r] Ker(π q [q]). Theorem 1. Let r 5 be the subgroup order and let S be an integer with S q mod r. Define N = gcd(s k 1, q k 1) and S k 1 = LN. Let c S = k 1 i=0 Sk 1 i q i mod N. Then a S : (Q, P ) f S,Q (P ) c S(q k 1)/N defines a bilinear pairing G 2 G 1 F q k [r]. If k Aut(E) then a twist S : (P, Q) f S,P (Q) c S(q k 1)/N also defines a bilinear pairing G 1 G 2 F q [r]. Both pairings a k S and a twist S non-degenerate if and only if r L. We will show that under certain conditions a suitable choice of S yields pairings a S and a twist S which are more efficient than the Ate pairing a T and the twisted Ate pairing a twist T for T = t 1. For these choices of S we call a S and optimised Ate and optimised twisted Ate pairing. a twist S Proof. The proof is essentially the same as in [11], but slightly more general. We let ψ = π q for the Ate pairing case and ψ = γπ q for the twisted Ate pairing case, where γ Aut(E) is an automorphism of order k such that (γπ q )(Q) = Q and (γπ q )(P ) = [q]p. If we interchange P and Q for the twisted Ate pairing we have ψ(p ) = P, ψ(q) = [q]q = [S]Q and need to consider f S,Q (P ) c S(q k 1)/N like for the Ate pairing. This allows us to deal with both cases in one go. From Lemma 1 of [11] we obtain and Lemma 2 of [1] yields e(q, P ) = f r,q (P ) (qk 1)/r = f N,Q (P ) (qk 1)/N e(q, P ) L = f N,Q (P ) L(qk 1)/N = f LN,Q (P ) (qk 1)/N = f S k 1,Q(P ) (qk 1)/N are = f Sk,Q(P ) (qk 1)/N. (1) f S k,q = fs,q Sk 1 fs,sq Sk 2 f S,S Q. (2) k 1 Since ψ is purely inseparable of degree q, we obtain from Lemma 4 in [11] f S,ψi (Q) ψ i = f qi S,Q. (3) 4

5 We have ψ i (Q) = S i Q and ψ i (P ) = P. Combining this with (2) and (3) gives Substituting (4) into (1) gives Now (5) shows that a S and a twist S if and only if r L. f Sk,Q(P ) = f S,Q (P ) P k 1 i=0 Sk 1 i q i. (4) e(q, P ) L = f S,Q (P ) c S(q k 1)/N. (5) are bilinear pairings, which are non-degenerate If we want to apply the twisted Ate pairing for k Aut(E), we can consider the base extension E 1 of E over F q e, where e = k/ gcd(k, Aut(E)). The embedding degree of E 1 with respect to r is m = k/e, and we have m Aut(E 1 ). We can thus apply the twisted Ate pairing from Theorem 1 to E 1, replacing q by q e, k by m and using S q e mod r. 4 Performance Evaluation We provide some families of elliptic curves admitting a twist of degree 4 and 6, and compare the costs of optimized versions with the standard pairings. 4.1 Polynomial Families Let ρ log p/ log r be the ratio between the bit lengths of the finite field and the order of the subgroup. If D = 1, 2, 3 in CM equation 4p t 2 = DV 2, the following elliptic curves are generated without CM algorithm [9]. E 1 : y 2 = x 3 + ax (D = 1) E 2 : y 2 = x 3 30ax a 3 (D = 2) E 3 : y 2 = x 3 + b (D = 3) where E 1 (respectively E 2 and E 3 ) is a twist of degree 4(respectively 2 and 6). Some polynomial families with square polynomial have been presented such as for k = 4, 6 when ρ 2 [7], for k = 8 when ρ 3/2 [9] and for k = 12 when ρ 1 [4]. These detailed parameterizations are in Appendix. 4.2 Efficiency Comparison We follow the analysis of [12] and compare the Tate pairing f r,p (Q), Ate pairing f T,Q (P ), twisted Ate pairing f T e,p (Q), optimized Ate pairing f S,Q (P ) and optimized twisted Ate pairing f S,P (Q) on ordinary elliptic curves admitting a twist of degree 6 when k = 6, 12 and degree 4 when k = 4, 8. We refer to f N,P (Q) as a Miller-Lite operation and f N,Q (P ) as a Full-Miller operation. We denote the cost of the Miller-Lite operation by C Lite and the cost of the Full-Miller operation by C Full. Assume both operations use projective coordinates. On the form 5

6 Y 2 = X 3 + AX + B, the costs for Miller-operations are estimated as follows [11]. When A = 3: When A = 0: C Lite = (4S 1 + (2e + 7)M 1 + S k + M k ) log 2 N C Full = (4S e + 6M e + 2eM 1 + S k + M k ) log 2 N C Lite = (5S 1 + (2e + 6)M 1 + S k + M k ) log 2 N C Full = (5S e + 6M e + 2eM 1 + S k + M k ) log 2 N where s = 2 i 3 j, M s = 3 i 5 j M 1, S s = M s. Using the parameters in Appendix, we estimate the loop length for each pairings. Table 1. The Costs Required for the Different Pairings Cost(average size t) Security Level Method Standard Optimized k = 4, d = 4 Tate 4960 log 2 p 320 Ate log 2 r 160 twisted Ate k = 6, d = 6 Tate log 2 p 512 Ate log 2 r 256 twisted Ate k = 8, d = 4 Tate log 2 p 384 Ate log 2 r 256 twisted Ate k = 12, d = 6 Tate log 2 p 256 Ate log 2 r 256 twisted Ate Table 1 represents the costs for different pairing on elliptic curves with k = 4, 6, 8, 12. When ρ 2, we have r t and conclude the optimized Ate and optimized twisted Ate pairings are twice as fast as Tate, Ate and twisted Ate pairings. When k = 8 we see that the optimized twisted Ate pairing is more efficient than the optimized Ate pairing. 5 Conclusion We have proposed optimized versions of the Ate and twisted Ate pairing which are always at least as fast as the Tate pairing. We have also showed that our optimized Ate and optimized twisted Ate pairings require a Miller loop of only half the length of the Miller loop of the Ate and twisted Ate pairings, if ordinary elliptic curves admitting twists of degree 4 and degree 6 with ρ 2 are employed. 6

7 References 1. P.S.L.M. Barreto, S. Galbraith, C. O heigeartaigh, and M. Scott, Efficient pairing computation on supersingular abelian varieties, Cryptology eprint Archive, Report 2004/375, P.S.L.M. Barreto, H.Y. Kim, B. Lynn, and M. Scott, Efficient algorithms for pairing-based cryptosystems, Crypto 2002, Lecture Notes on Computer Science, Vol. 2442, pp , P.S.L.M. Barreto, Ben Lynn, and M. Scott, On the Selection of Pairing-Friendly Groups, SAC 2003, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 3006, pp17 25, P.S.L.M. Barreto and Michael Naehrig, Pairing-Friendly Elliptic Curve of Prime Order, Cryptology eprint Archive, Report 2005/133, D. Boneh and M. Franklin, Identity-based Encryption from the Weil pairing, CRYPTO 2001, Lecture Notes on Computer Science, Vol. 2139, pp , D. Boneh, B. Lynn and H. Shacham, Short Signatures from Weil pairing, ASI- ACRYPT 2001, Lecture Notes on Computer Science, Vol. 2248, pp , Pu Duan, Shi Cui and Choong Wah Chan, Effective Polynomial Families for Generating More Pairing-friendly Elliptic Curve, Cryptology eprint Archive, Report 2005/236, Iwan Duursma and Hyang-Sook Lee, Tate Pairing Implementation for Hyperelliptic Cruves y 2 = x p x + d, ASIACRYPT 2003, Lecture Notes on Computer Science, Vol. 2894, pp , David Freeman, M. Scott and Edlyn Teske, A taxonomy of pairingfriendly elliptic curves, Cryptology eprint Archive, Report 2006/372, S. Galbraith, K. Harrison and S. Soldera, Implementing the Tate pairing, ANTS V, Lecture Notes on Computer Science, vol.2369, pp , F. Hess, N.P. Smart and F. Vercauteren, The Eta Pairing Revisited, IEEE Transaction on Information Theory, vol.52, pp , NO. 10, OCTOBER N. Koblitz and A. Menezes, Pairing-based cryptography at high security level, Cryptography and Coding: 10th IMA International Conference, Lecture Notes on Computer Science, Vol. 3796, pp13-36, Arjen K. Lenstra, Selecting Cryptographic Key Sizes, Journal of CRYPTOL- OGY, vol.14, No.4, pp , December, R. Sakai, K. Ohgishi and M. Kasahara, Cryptosystems based on pairing, SCIS 2000, M.Scott, Scaling security in pairing-based protocols, Cryptology eprint Archive, Report 2005/139, Michael Scott, Neil Costigan, and Wesam Abdulwahab, Implementing Cryptographic Pairings on Smartcards, Cryptology eprint Archive, Report 2006/144,

8 Appendix We show the following parameterizations for k = 4, 6, 8, 12 [7, 4, 9] and the value of T = t 1 and S = p mod r. k = 4 t = 4z 2 + 2z + 2 r = 4z p = 8z 4 + 6z 2 + 2z + 1 DV 2 = 4z 2 (2z 2 1) 2 T = 4z 2 + 2z + 1 S = 2z k = 6 t = 3z r = 3z 2 3z + 1 p = 9z 4 9z 3 + 9z 2 3z + 1 DV 2 = 3(3z 2 2z + 1) 2 T = 3z 2 S = 3z 1 k = 8 t = 9z 3 3z 2 2z r = 9z z 3 + 8z 2 + 4z + 1 p = 1 4 (81z6 + 54z z z z 2 + 6z + 1) DV 2 = (3z + 1) 2 T = 9z 3 3z 2 2z 1 T 2 = 81z z z z z 2 + 4z + 1 S = T (for optimized Ate pairing) S = p 2 mod r = 18z 3 15z 2 10z 4 (for optimized twisted Ate pairing) k = 12 t = 6z r = 36z z z 2 + 6z + 1 p = 36z z z 2 + 6z + 1 DV 2 = 3(6z 2 + 4z + 1) 2 T = 6z 2 T 2 = 36z 4 S = T (for optimized Ate pairing) S = p 2 mod r = 36z 3 18z 2 6z 1 (for optimized twisted Ate pairing) 8