Path of desire or path of least resistance?
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- Jemimah Hunter
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1 Path of desire or path of least resistance? Desire Path: A term in landscape architecture used to describe a path that isn t designed but rather is worn casually away by people finding the shortest distance between two points.
2 Running Water Running water is the most important geologic agent in eroding, transporting and depositing sediment Nearly every landscape on Earth shows the results of stream erosion or deposition
3 Hydrologic Cycle Hydrologic cycle the movement and interchange of water between the sea, air, and land Evaporation Solar radiation provides energy Precipitation Rain or snow Transpiration Evaporation from plants Runoff Water flowing over land surface Infiltration Water soaking into the ground
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5 Running Water Stream a body of running water, confined to a channel, that runs downhill under the influence of gravity Headwaters upper part of stream near its source in the mountains Mouth place where a stream enters sea, lake or larger stream Channel a long, narrow depression eroded by a stream into rock or sediment Stream banks sides of channel Streambed bottom of the channel Floodplain flat valley floor composed of sediment deposited by the stream Insert revised Fig. 10.2
6 Yellowstone River Drainage Basin
7 Mississippi River Drainage Basin
8 The Big Sandy: a meandering stream
9 Sediment Deposition Meandering streams flow faster along the outside of bends and more slowly along the inside, depositing point bars on the insides of the meanders Insert Fig Meander cutoffs may form when a new, shorter channel is cut through the narrow neck of a meander (as during a flood)
10 Deposition of sand bars, formation of cross bedding and Ox bows (not related)
11 Stream Erosion Stream erosion (and deposition) controlled by flow velocity and discharge Stream velocity controlled by stream gradient (slope), channel shape and channel roughness Maximum velocity near center of channel Floods involve increased velocity and discharge (volume of water passing a particular point in a stream over time) Higher stream velocities promote erosion and transport of coarser sediments Erosion of very small particles difficult due to molecular binding forces
12 Sediment Deposition Sediments are temporarily deposited along stream course as bars and floodplain deposits, and at/near its end as deltas or alluvial fans Bars ridges of sediment (usually sand or gravel) deposited in the middle or along the sides of a stream Braided streams contain sediment deposited as numerous bars around which water flows in highly interconnected rivulets
13 Sediment Deposition Floodplains are broad strips of land built up by sedimentation on either side of a stream channel Floodplain sediments are left behind as flood waters slow and recede at the end of flood events Main channel has slightly raised banks with respect to the floodplain known as natural levees
14 Sediment Deposition Delta body of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river when flow velocity decreases Surface marked by shifting distributary channels Shape of a delta depends on whether its wave dominated, tidedominated, or stream dominated
15 The Ganges River Delta
16 Sediment Deposition Alluvial fan large, fan or cone shaped pile of sediment that forms where stream velocity decreases as it emerges from a narrow mountain canyon onto a flat plain Well developed in desert regions, such as the southwestern U.S. Larger fans show grading from large sediments nearest the mountains to finer sediments farther away
17 Flooding When water levels rise and overtop the banks of a river, flooding occurs Natural process on all rivers Described by recurrence intervals A 100 year flood is, on average, the size of the largest flood within a 100 year period of time Can cause great damage in heavily populated areas High velocity and large volume of water causes flood erosion Slowing of waters as flood ends causes flood deposits (usually of silt or claysized particles) to be deposited in the floodplain
18 sultan-landslide.mov DebrisFlow_Moscardo.mov A landslide A debris flow FlashFloodJerol.mov A flash flood DebrisFlow_simualted.mov Simulated debris flow: graded bedding
19 Types of Weathering Mechanical weathering Physical disintegration Frost action, pressure release fracturing, plant growth, burrowing animals, salt wedging, thermal cycling Chemical weathering Decomposition of rock from exposure to atmospheric gases (oxygen, water vapor and carbon dioxide) New chemical compounds (minerals) form Rate increased by increased rock surface area Spheroidal weathering
20 Oxidation Chemical Weathering Chemically active oxygen from atmosphere Iron oxides are common result Soil and sedimentary rocks often stained with iron oxides Acid dissolution Hydrogen cations replace others in minerals Carbonic acid from atmospheric CO 2 dissolved in water Sulfuric, hydrofluoric acids emitted by volcanic eruptions Some minerals, such as calcite, may be totally dissolved Human activity, such as mining and burning of fossil fuels, produces acids
21 Feldspars Chemical Weathering Most common minerals in crust Slightly acidic rain water attacks feldspar Clay minerals produced K +, Na +, Ca ++ ions released into water Other minerals Ferromagnesian minerals Clays, iron oxides, Mg ++ ions produced More complex silicate bonds lead to lower weathering susceptibility Olivine most susceptible, quartz least Warm, wet climatic conditions maximize weathering
22 Chemical Weathering Chemical weathering is driven by thermodynamic energy minimization, just like chemical reactions at high temperature. The system seeks the most stable assemblage of phases. The differences are that (1) kinetics are slow and metastability is common; (2) the stable minerals under wet, ambient conditions are different from those at high T and P; (3) solubility in water and its dependence on water chemistry (notably ph) are major determinants in the stability of minerals in weathering. A fresh rock made of olivine and pyroxenes will end up as clays and iron oxides, with other elements in solution A fresh rock made of feldspars and quartz will end up as clays, hydroxides, and quartz in most waters. 22
23
24 Stability of minerals at the Earth s surface is predicted by Bowen s reaction series in Reverse, i.e., Quartz is most stable and Olivine is least.
25 Sedimentary Rocks Produced from weathering products of pre existing rocks or accumulated biological matter Detrital (clastic) rocks produced from rock fragments Chemical rocks produced by precipitation of dissolved ions in water usually by animals or plants, i.e., biogenic Organic/biogenic rocks produced by accumulation of biological debris, such as in swamps or bogs, e.g., coal, oil etc. Sedimentary rock types and sedimentary structures within the rocks give clues to past environments Fossils in sedimentary rocks give clues to the history of life Important resources (coal, oil) are found in sedimentary rocks
26 Relationship to Earth s Systems Atmosphere Most sediments produced by weathering in air Sand and dust transported by wind Hydrosphere Water is a primary agent in sediment production, transportation, deposition, cementation, and formation of sedimentary rocks Biosphere Biological activity key to formation of sedimentary rocks Petroleum and coal resources have biological origin
27 Sediment Sediment loose, solid particles originating from: Weathering and erosion of pre existing rocks Chemical precipitation from solution, including secretion by organisms in water Classified by particle size Boulder >256 mm Cobble 64 to 256 mm Pebble 2 to 64 mm Sand 1/16 to 2 mm Silt 1/256 to 1/16 mm Clay <1/256 mm Gravel
28 Distinguishing Characteristics of Clastic Sediments: Grain Size mud/clay, silt (<0.06mm), fine sand ( mm), coarse sand ( mm), pebbles (2 64mm), cobbles (64 256mm), boulders (>256mm); particle size reflects energy (velocity) of the transport and depositional system.
29 From Sediment to Sedimentary Rock Transportation Movement of sediment away from its source, typically by water, wind, or ice Rounding of particles occurs due to abrasion during transport Sorting occurs as sediment is separated according to grain size by transport agents, especially running water Sediment size decreases with increased transport distance
30 Distinguishing Characteristics of Clastic Sediments (cont.): Sorting Well sorted sediment indicates prolonged reworking by wind or water; poorly sorted sediment may indicate rapid deposition, or deposition by ice or mass movement. Angularity/Roundness and Shape Well rounded sediment also indicate prolonged reworking by transporting agent; the shape of grains often indicates the transport system, but also may be related to the type of mineral or rock fragment
31 From Sediment to Sedimentary Rock Deposition Settling and coming to rest of transported material Accumulation of chemical or organic sediments, typically in water Environment of deposition is the location in which deposition occurs Deep sea floor Beach Desert dunes River channel Lake bottom
32 From Sediment to Sedimentary Rock Preservation Sediment must be preserved, as by burial with additional sediments, in order to become a sedimentary rock Lithification General term for processes converting loose sediment into sedimentary rock Combination of compaction and cementation
33 Types of Sedimentary Rocks Detrital sedimentary rocks Most common sedimentary rock type Form from cemented sediment grains that come from pre existing rocks Chemical sedimentary rocks Have crystalline textures Form by precipitation of minerals from solution Organic sedimentary rocks Accumulate from remains of organisms
34 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Breccia and Conglomerate Coarse grained clastic sedimentary rocks Sedimentary breccia composed of coarse, angular rock fragments cemented together Conglomerate composed of rounded gravel cemented together Sandstone Medium grained clastic sedimentary rock Types determined by composition Quartz sandstone >90% quartz grains Arkose mostly feldspar and quartz grains Graywacke sand grains surrounded by dark, fine grained matrix, often clay rich
35 Shale Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Fine grained clastic sedimentary rock Splits into thin layers (fissile) Silt and clay sized grains Sediment deposited in lake bottoms, river deltas, floodplains, and on deep ocean floor Siltstone Slightly coarser grained than shales Lacks fissility Claystone Predominantly clay sized grains; non fissile Mudstone Silt and clay sized grains; massive/blocky
36 Types of Clastic Sediments & Environments of Formation MUDSTONE/SHALE Well sorted, mature, claysized particles ; generally implies deposition into quiet water SANDSTONE Well sorted, mature, commonly bedded, sand sized particles typically transported by wind or moderate water movement (e.g. rivers, beaches) GREYWACKE Moderately sorted, immature, clayto sand sized particles commonly showing graded bedding. Commonly deposited in deep waters off mountainous coasts. CONGLOMERATE Poorly sorted, immature, clay to boulder sized particles transported only a short distance from their source and typically deposited by fast moving water. TILL Very poorly sorted, clay to boulder sized particles; non bedded; deposited from glaciers.
37 Sedimentary Structures Sedimentary structures Features within sedimentary rocks produced during or just after sediment deposition Provide clues to how and where deposition of sediments occurred Bedding Series of visible layers within a rock Most common sedimentary structure Cross bedding Series of thin, inclined layers within a horizontal bed of rock Common in sandstones Indicative of deposition in ripples, bars,
38 Cross bedding: Zion National Park
39 Cross bedding: Kaibab Sandstone, Zion National Park
40 Sedimentary Structures Ripple marks Small ridges formed on surface of sediment layer by moving wind or water Graded bedding Progressive change in grain size from bottom to top of a bed Mud cracks Polygonal cracks formed in drying mud Fossils Traces of plants or animals preserved in rock Hard parts (shells, bones) more easily preserved as fossils
41 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Composed of fragments of pre existing rock that have been weathered, transported,... by Water
42 4 Mature Rivers Floodplains and Meanders
43 Effects of Changing Base Levels due to tectonic uplift or changing sea level
44 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Composed of fragments of pre existing rock that have been weathered, transported,... by Wind Cross bedding
45 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Composed of fragments of pre existing rock that have been weathered, eroded, and transported to a site of deposition
46 Deltaic Environments deposition of sediment due to loss of transport energy
47 Near shore Environments of Deposition
48 Deep waterdeposition DebrisFlow_simualted.mov
49 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks Carbonates Contain CO 3 as part of their chemical composition Limestone is composed mainly of calcite Most are biochemical, but can be inorganic Often contain easily recognizable fossils Chemical alteration of limestone in Mg rich water solutions can produce dolomite Chert Hard, compact, fine grained, formed almost entirely of silica Can occur as layers or as lumpy nodules within other sedimentary rocks, especially limestones Evaporites Form from evaporating saline waters (lake, ocean) Common examples are rock gypsum, rock salt
50 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks composed of minerals precipitated from water (usually ocean water) due to evaporation or to the metabolic action of organisms (biogenic) IRON FORMATION Iron oxide minerals, usually magnetite (taconite ore) or hematite (natural ore), interlayered with chert (microcrystalline quartz) and clay minerals. Common chemical sedimentary rock biogenically formed in shallow marine environments older than about 1.8 billion years. LIMESTONE Calcium carbonate (calcite) typically composed of abundant marine fossils. Most common type of chemical sediment forming today by biogenic processing of seawater. Dolomite (or dolostone) is created by replacement of calcium by magnesium after shallow burial of limestone. Forms in tropical shallow marine environments. EVAPORITE DEPOSITS (Gypsum, Halite, Anhydrite) mineral precipitated from saline water in arid environments with high evaporation rates (e.g., playa lakes) PEAT/COAL Carbonaceous material created by the accumulation, compaction and heating of organic matter. Forms in temperate to tropical, low energy, terrestrial environments (lagoons, floodplains).
51 Organics in Sedimentary Rocks Coal Sedimentary rock forming from compaction of partially decayed plant material Organic material deposited in water with low oxygen content (i.e., stagnant) Oil and natural gas Originate from organic matter in marine sediment Subsurface cooking can change organic solids to oil and natural gas Can accumulate in porous overlying rocks
52 Environments of Chemical Sedimentation Evaporites Coal Limestone
53 Sedimentary Rock Interpretation Sedimentary rocks give important clues to the geologic history of an area Source area Locality that eroded and provided sediment Sediment composition, shape, size and sorting are indicators of source rock type and relative location Depositional environment Location where sediment came to rest Sediment characteristics and sedimentary structures (including fossils) are indicators Examples: glacial valleys, alluvial fans, river channels and floodplains, lakes, deltas, beaches, dunes, shallow marine, reefs, deep marine
54 Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks Tectonic setting plays key role in the distribution of sedimentary rocks Occurrence of specific sedimentary rock types can be used to reconstruct past plate tectonic settings Erosion rates and depositional characteristics give clues to each type of tectonic plate boundary
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