CHAPTER 2 EARTH MATERIALS: A PHYSICAL GEOLOGY REFRESHER
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1 CHAPTER 2 EARTH MATERIALS: A PHYSICAL GEOLOGY REFRESHER CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter offers a comprehensive review of common rock forming minerals, their occurrence, chemical composition and usefulness in the interpretation of ancient geologic environments. Table 2-2, Common Rock-Forming Silicate Minerals (Page 37 of the textbook) gives the name of the Silicate Mineral, Composition and Physical Properties. A review of the three rock families igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic is given using the rock cycle where geologic processes act continuously to change one rock type into another. Additional information on the three families is offered explaining how each rock type is reflective of the specific environmental conditions present during the rock formation. This is particularly evident with sedimentary rocks. LEARNING OBJECTIVES By reading and completing information within this chapter you should gain an understanding of the following concepts: Explain how the common rock-forming minerals are formed. Explain the characteristics of silicate and nonsilicate minerals and how they are grouped. Discuss the conditions and occurrences of rock forming minerals. Discuss the different characteristics that separate igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Sketch and label the rock cycle, showing the alternative routes that can be taken. Describe how igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic minerals are formed and therefore reflective of past environments. CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Minerals A. Common Rock-Forming Minerals 1. Silicate Minerals 2. Nonsilicate Minerals II. Rocks A. Rock Conversions B. Igneous Rocks 1. Cooling History of Igneous Rocks 2. Composition of Igneous Rocks 3. Volcanic Activity C. Sedimentary Rocks 1. Derivation of Sedimentary Minerals 2. Variety Among Sedimentary Rocks D. Metamorphic Rocks 1. Metamorphism 2. Kinds of Metamorphic Rocks 3. Historical Significance of Metamorphic Rocks 16
2 KEY TERMS (Pages 34-59) Amphibole (37): A ferromagnesium silicate mineral that occurs commonly in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Andesite (48): A volcanic rock that in chemical composition is intermediate between basalt and granite. Aragonite (40): A carbonate mineral that occurs in a different crystal form and more rarely than either calcite or dolomite. Seen as the inner mother-of-pearl layer of clam shells. Aragonite is unstable and will form a hexagonal crystal. Augite (37): A dark colored, ferromagnesian mineral which is an important member of the pyroxene family of minerals (silicates of aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and iron). It is stumpy in shape, with good cleavage developed along two planes that are nearly at right angles. Basalt (42): A fine-grained extrusive igneous rock composed of ferromagnesian minerals and tiny rectangular grains of plagioclase feldspars. Breccia (50): A sedimentary rock that has a clastic texture (composed of fragmental grains such as sand, silt, or parts of fossils) with fragments that are angular, but similar in size to those of conglomerates (consisting of angular fragments greater than 2mm in diameter). Calcite (39): The predominant mineral in the carbonate rock limestone. One of the most common carbonate minerals. Carbonate (51): A general term for a chemical compound formed when carbon dioxide dissolved in water combines with oxides of calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and iron. The most common carbonate minerals are calcite and dolomite. Chalk (52): A soft, fine-grained white to gray variety of limestone composed largely of the calcium carbonate (calcite) skeletal remains of marine organisms. Chert (36, 53): A dense, hard sedimentary rock or mineral composed of sub-micro-crystalline quartz. Unless colored by impurities, chert is white, as opposed to flint, which is dark or black. Clastic Texture (47): Texture that characterizes a rock made up of fragmental grains such as sand, silt, or parts of fossils. Conglomerates, sandstones, and siltstones are clastic rocks; the individual clastic grains are termed clasts. Clay Minerals (38): Silicates of hydrogen and aluminum with additions of magnesium, iron, and potassium. Their basic structure is similar to that of mica, but because individual flakes are extremely small, their mica-like form can only be seen with an electron microscope. Cleavage (35): Refers to the tendency of some minerals to break smoothly along certain planes of weakness. Coal (54): A carbonaceous rock resulting from the accumulation of plant matter in a swampy environment combined with alteration of that plant tissue by both biochemical and physical processes until it is converted to a consolidated carbon-rich material. The stages are peat, lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous, and anthracite. It is sedimentary in nature until it reaches the sub-bituminous stage, at which point it becomes metamorphic. Conglomerate (50): A rock that has a clastic texture (composed of grains and broken fragments called clasts of preexisting minerals, rocks, and fossils) with particles that are rounded and larger than 2 mm in diameter. 17
3 Contact Metamorphism (54): Alteration of rock immediately adjacent to an igneous intrusion. Compositional and textural changes occurring are largely the result of high temperatures and the emanation of chemically active vapors that accompany igneous intrusions. Dolomite (dolostone) (39): A carbonate sedimentary rock that contains more than 50% of the mineral dolomite CaMg(CO 3 ) 2. Evaporite (53): Sediments precipitated from a water solution as a result of the evaporation of that water. Evaporite minerals include anhydrite gypsum (CaSO 4 ) and halite (NaCl). Extrusive Igneous Rock (42): Igneous rocks formed from melts that have reach the Earth s surface. Examples are rocks formed from lava erupted from volcanoes or lava that has welled out of fissures. Feldspar (36): The most abundant constituents of rocks, comprising about 60% of the total weight of the Earth s crust. There are two major families of feldspar: the orthoclase or potassium feldspar group, which comprises the potassium aluminosilicates, and the plagioclase group, which comprises the aluminosilicates of sodium and calcium. Fissility (51): That property of rocks that caused them to split into thin slabs parallel to bedding planes. Characteristic of shale. Foliation (55): A textural feature especially characteristic of metamorphic rocks in which laminae develop by growth or realignment of minerals in parallel orientation. Examples include slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss. Fractional Crystallization (48): The separation of components of a cooling magma by sequential formation of particular mineral crystals at progressively lower temperatures. Gneiss (56): Coarse-grained, evenly granular metamorphic rock. Foliation results from segregation of minerals into bands rich in quartz, feldspar, biotite, or amphibole. Usual parent rocks are high-silica igneous rocks and sandstones. Granite (43): A silica-rich, relatively light-colored intrusive igneous rock composed primarily of potassium feldspar, quartz (at least 25%), sodium plagioclase, hornblende, and mica. Granodiorite (43): Abundant quartz-bearing intrusive igneous rock, with plagioclase being the dominant feldspar. Greenstone (56): A non-foliated, low grade metamorphic rock which is dark green in color due to the presence of abundant chlorite, epidote, and biotite. It is derived from metamorphism of basaltic extrusive igneous rocks. Great linear outcrops of greenstones are termed greenstone belts and are thought to mark the locations of former volcanic island arcs. The texture is so fine that mineral components cannot be seen without magnification (except for larger crystals). Gypsum (40): A soft, hydrous calcium sulfate. Referred to as an evaporate because it is often precipitated from bodies of water that have been subjected to intense evaporation. Halite (40): A non-silicate mineral. Also known as rock salt. This mineral has a salty taste and cleaves to form cubes. Referred to as an evaporate because it is often precipitated from bodies of water that have been subjected to intense evaporation. Hornblende (37): A vitreous, black or very dark green mineral. Most common member of the larger family of minerals called amphiboles. Designated as a ferromagnesian or mafic mineral because of its iron and magnesium content. It contains crystals that are long and narrow and shows two good cleavage planes parallel to the long axis and intersect each other at angles. 18
4 Hornfels (56): A non-foliated metamorphic rock which is very hard and fined grained. It is often studded with small crystals of mica and garnet having no preferred orientation. May form from shale or other finegrained rocks that are intensely heated during contact metamorphism of intrusive igneous bodies. Igneous Rock (42): A rock formed by the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. They constitute over 90% of the volume of the Earth s crust. Intrusive Igneous Rock (39, 42): Igneous rocks that have formed from magma that has penetrated into other rocks and solidified before reaching the surface. Very large masses of such rocks are called plutons. Lava (42): The term used to describe molten material that has reached the surface of the Earth. Limestone (51): A sedimentary rock consisting mainly of calcium carbonate. The most abundant limestones are of marine origin and have formed as a result of precipitation of calcite or aragonite by organisms and the incorporation of skeletons of those organisms into sedimentary deposits. Limestones tend to be well stratified and are often fossiliferous (containing fossils). Lithification (49): The process by which loose sediment is converted to coherent solid rock by any of several processes: precipitation of a cementing material around individual grains, compaction, or crystallization. Lithographic Limestone (52): A dense, micritic limestone used as an etching surface in printing illustrations. Magma (42): The term used to describe the mixture of molten silicates and gases while still beneath the surface. Marble (56): A non-foliated metamorphic rock composed of calcite or dolomite, with a fine to coarsely crystalline texture. Marble is derived from limestone or dolomite. Metamorphic Facies (57): Zones of rocks that formed under specific conditions. Zones form due to the fact that metamorphic minerals form and are stable within finite limits of temperature and pressure. Metamorphic Rock (39, 54): Any rock that has been changed from previously existing rocks by the action of heat, pressure, and associated chemical activity. The parent rock is subjected to high temperature and pressure but does not melt. Mica (37): A silicate mineral easily recognized by its perfect and conspicuous cleavage along one directional plane. There are two chief varieties: the colorless or pale-colored muscovite mica, which is a hydrous potassium aluminum silicate, and the dark-colored biotite mica, which also contains magnesium and iron. Both are common rock-forming silicates. Micrite (52): An exceptionally fine-grained carbonate mud (limestone). Olivine (37): A glassy looking iron and magnesium silicate, often with an olive green color. Common mineral in dark, mafic rocks. The basis of the gemstone peridot. Partial Melting (47): The general process by which a rock subjected to high temperature and pressure is partly melted and the liquid component is moved to another location. Partial melting results from the variations in melting points of different minerals in the original rock mass. 19
5 Phyllite (55): Has a very fine texture, although some grains of mica, chlorite, garnet, or quartz may be visible. Surfaces often develop a wrinkled aspect and are more lustrous than slate. Phyllite is intermediate in degree of metamorphism between slate and schist. Parent rocks are commonly shale or slate. Porphyritic Texture (42): Texture shown due to a two stage cooling of an igneous rock. The large crystals (phenocrysts) were formed slowly at depth and were then swept upward and incorporated in the lava as it hardened at the surface (more rapid cooling). Pyroxene Group (37): A group of dark-colored iron and magnesium-rich silicate minerals. Quartz (36): Most important of all the silicate minerals. In appearance, quartz is a glassy, colorless, gray, or white mineral. It is relatively hard and will scratch glass. Quartzite (56): A non-foliated metamorphic rock which is fine-grained and often sugary-textured. It is composed of inter-grown quartz and is very hard. Derived from quartz sandstone and may vary in color. Regional Metamorphism (54): Also known as dynamothermal metamorphism. A type of rock alteration that is really extensive and occurs under the conditions of great confining pressures and heat accompanying deep burial and mountain building. Rock Cycle (41): A sequence of events involving the formation, alteration, destruction, and reformation of rocks as a result of such processes as magmatism, erosion, transportation, deposition, lithification, and metamorphism. Sandstone (49): A sedimentary rock composed of grains of quartz, feldspar, and other particles that are cemented or otherwise consolidated. One of the most abundant sedimentary rocks. Grains range between 1/16mm and 2mm in diameter. Schist (55): Consists of platy or needle-like minerals sufficiently large to be visible to the unaided eye. Minerals tend to be segregated into distinct layers. Schists are named according to the most conspicuous mineral present. The parent rock is usually shale, although some are derived from fine-grained volcanic rocks. Sedimentary Rock (48): A rock that has formed as a result of the consolidation (lithification) of accumulations of sediment. Shale (49): A sedimentary rock consisting largely of very fine particles of quartz and abundant clay. One of the most abundant sedimentary rocks. Grains are smaller than 1/256 mm in diameter (clay size). Siltstone (50): A sedimentary rock that is finer than a sandstone with grains ranging in size between 1/16 mm and 1/256 mm in diameter. Slate (55): Foliated metamorphic rock with the foliation being microscopic and caused by the parallel alignment of minute flakes of silicates. Planes of foliation are smooth and the rock may split along these planes of slaty cleavage. Derived from the regional metamorphism of shale. Strata (49): A feature of sedimentary rocks in which the rocks occur in beds or layers called strata. Texture (41, 50): The size, shape, and arrangement of constituent minerals in a rock. 20
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8 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. The rock cycle implies that: a. metamorphic rocks can only be derived from igneous rocks. b. metamorphic rocks are derived from magma. c. any rock type can be derived from any other rock type. d. igneous rocks are composed of quartz and gabbro. 2. A textural term used to describe an igneous rock with large crystals called phenocrysts in a matrix of more finely crystalline rock is: a. phenocryptic. c. porphyritic. b. polymorphic. d. dolomitic. 3. Which of the following is a foliated metamorphic rock? a. schist c. gabbro b. shale d. marble 4. The mineral precipitated as an orthorhombic crystal form of calcium carbonate which is unstable and will change to form a hexagonal crystal form is: a. aragonite. c. calcite. b. gypsum. d. silica. 5. An example of a sedimentary evaporite is: a. calcite. c. limestone. b. dolomite. d. gypsum. 6. The principle that an igneous intrusion or fault must be younger than the rocks it intrudes or cuts is termed: a. superposition. c. original horizontality. b. lateral continuity. d. cross-cutting relationships. 7. Rocks that cool from a melt are: a. metamorphic rocks. d. hard rocks. b. igneous rocks. e. on the rocks. c. sedimentary rocks. 8. Rocks that have recrystallized under high temperatures and pressures are: a. metamorphic rocks. d. granite. b. igneous rocks. e. basalt. c. sedimentary rocks. 9. The size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock constitutes its: a. permeable origin. c. cement. b. porosity. d. texture. 10. A clastic rock composed of water-worn, rounded particles larger than 2 mm in diameter is: a. mudstone. c. breccia. b. siltstone. d. conglomerate. 11. The overwhelmingly predominant constituent of an igneous rock is: a. silicon. c. aluminum. b. oxygen. d. calcium. 23
9 12. Which of the following is one of the eight most common elements in the earth s crust? a. nitrogen d. thorium b. potassium e. hydrogen c. uranium 13. The fine extrusive equivalent of granite is: a. diorite. d. basalt. b. rhyolite. e. gabbro. c. andesite. 14. The ferromagnesium silicate mineral that occurs commonly in igneous and metamorphic rock is: a. amphibole. d. sylvite. b. pyrite. e. goethite. c. sphalerite 15. An igneous rock that is an extrusive is: a. rhyolite. d. conglomerate. b. gabbro. e. schist. c. granite. 16. A type of pyroxene is: a. andesite. d. silver. b. augite. e. hematite. c. pyrite. 17. The elements that comprise 60% of earth s crust and are silicates are called: a. dolomites. d. feldspars. b. carbonates. e. quartz. c. sulfates. 18. A silica-poor extrusive rock is: a. basalt. d. diorite. b. gabbro. e. conglomerate. c. rhyolite. 19. Magma that comes from partial melting of the asthenosphere is: a. rhyolitic. c. clastic. b. basaltic. d. biochemical. 20. A biochemical rock made from microscopic nonsiliceous plant remains is: a. coal. d. rock salt. b. chalk. e. siltstone. c. chert. 24
10 FILL-IN THE BLANK 1. A naturally occurring element or compound formed by inorganic processes that has a definite chemical composition or range of compositions as well as distinctive properties that reflect its internal atomic structure is. 2. The size, shape, and arrangement of constituent minerals in a rock is called. 3. Rocks that have cooled from a molten state are. 4. Halite and the various gypsum minerals are sometimes referred to as because they are often precipitated from bodies of water that have been subjected to intense evaporation. 5. Rocks that have been changed from previously existing rocks by the action of heat, pressure, and associated chemical activity are. 6. Orthoclase and plagioclase are members of this major group of silicate minerals called. 7. The minerals that are silicates of hydrogen and aluminum with additions of magnesium, iron, and potassium are called. 8. A carbonate mineral that occurs more rarely than either calcite or dolomite is. 9. A silica-rich, relatively light-colored intrusive rock composed primarily of potassium feldspar, quartz, sodium plagioclase, hornblend, and mica is. 10. The general process by which a rock subjected to high temperature and pressure is partly melted and the liquid component is moved to another location is. 11. Loose sediment is converted to coherent solid rock by any of several processes: precipitation of a cementing material around individual grains, compaction, or crystallization. These processes constitute. 12. Alterations of rock immediately adjacent to igneous intrusions constitute this type of metamorphism The texture of a rock that is composed of grains and broken fragments (clasts) of pre-existing minerals, rocks, and fossils is called. 14. The term reserved for clastic rocks composed of fragments that are angular but similar in size to those of conglomerates is. 15. A soft, porous variety of limestone that is composed largely of extremely minute calcareous skeletal elements is called. 25
11 TRUE/FALSE 1. Lava is the term used to describe a mixture of molten silicates and gases while it is still beneath the surface. 2. Regional metamorphism is a type of rock alteration that is really extensive and occurs under the conditions of great confining pressures and heat accompanying deep burial and mountain building. 3. The common foliated metamorphic rocks are gneiss and marble. 4. Most metamorphic rocks exhibit a layering called foliation which results from the parallel alignment of mineral grains. 5. Slate is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock that is composed of calcite or dolomite and therefore relatively soft. 6. All sedimentary rocks are classified according to their size and texture. 7. The most abundant limestones are of marine origin and have formed as a result of precipitation of calcite or aragonite by organisms that have died and settled to the sea floor. 8. Evaporites are chemically precipitated rocks that are formed as a result of evaporation of saline water bodies. 9. The span of time through which the earth has evolved is termed geologic time. 10. Silicate minerals are the most important of the rock-forming minerals. 26
12 ANSWER KEY Multiple Choice 1. c 2. c 3. a 4. a 5. d 6. d 7. b 8. a 9. d 10. d 11. a 12. b 13. b 14. a 15. a 16. b 17. d 18. a 19. b 20. a Fill Ins 1. mineral 2. texture 3. igneous 4. evaporites 5. metamorphic 6. feldspar 7. clay 8. aragonite 9. granite 10. partial melting 11. lithification 12. contact 13. clastic 14. breccia 15. chalk True/False 1. False 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. False 6. False 7. True 8. True 9. True 10. True 27
13 RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS ACCOMPANYING SELECTED FIGURES FIGURE 2-6 (p. 39) Iron and magnesium are generally abundant elements in dark-colored (dark gray, black, or green) igneous rocks. FIGURE 2-10 (p. 40) Unlike calcite, which has rhombohedral cleavage, halite has cubic cleavage. FIGURE 2-15 (p. 43) Porphyritic texture results when a magma is initially cooling very slowly so that lare crystals (phenocrysts) have ample time to grow in the melt, and then rapidly cooled (as in a volcanic eruption) so that the surrounding melt solidifies as a finely crystalline mass. As indicated in the legend, the phenocrysts are likely to be orthoclase. FIGURE 2-16 (p. 44) Obsidian is a volcanic glass formed when lava is suddenly chilled so that constituent atoms do not have the time required to arrange themselves into the orderly atomic structures that characterize crystals. FIGURE 2-17 (p. 44) According to the chart, a midrange basalt would be composed of about 55 percent calcium plagioclase, 30 percent pyroxene, and 15 percent olivine. FIGURE 2-20 (p. 46) Amphibole and biotite are likely to form when pyroxene crystals react with liquid magma. Plagioclase in granite is mostly likely to be of sodium rich variety. FIGURE 2-24 (p. 49) Clay is the most abundant insoluble product resulting from the weathering of feldspars. Quartz is the most stable and least likely to experience dissolution during chemical weathering. FIGURE 2-25 (p. 50) The material weathered from the exposure of granodiorite seen in figure 2-25 would include clay (particularly the clay kaolinite), in addition to abundant grains of quartz and feldspar. FIGURE 2-26 (p. 50) Conglomerate is composed of rounded fragments greater than 2 mm in diameter cemented in a fine-grained matrix of finer particles. In a breccia, the fragments are of the same size but are angular. FIGURE 2-38 (p. 57) Quartzite has the same hardness as quartz and will scratch plate glass. In addition, quartzite will not effervesce on the application of dilute hydrochloric acid (as does marble). 28
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