Geologic History. A. Basic Geologic Principles The relative age of rock formations relies on the following basic geologic principles:

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1 Geologic History I. Relative Age Dating of Rocks Relative age of rocks does not rely on an exact date of a rock, but relates its age relative to other rock formations or layers. A. Basic Geologic Principles The relative age of rock formations relies on the following basic geologic principles: 1. The Principle of Uniformitarianism - the geologic processes that occur today on the Earth have been occurring since its formation. 2. Principle of Original Horizontality Sedimentary rocks are deposited in horizontal layers. 3. Principle of Superposition In an undisturbed rock sequence, the oldest rocks are at the bottom, and the youngest are at the top. 4. Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships An intrusion, extrusion, or

2 a fault within a rock sequence is younger than the rock it cuts into. 5. Contact Metamorphism Metamorphic rocks caused by contact with an igneous intrusion are younger than their parent rocks, and are the same age as the intrusion. 7. Unconformity a buried erosional surface that creates a gap in the rock record.

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12 II. Absolute Dating of Rocks Several methods can be used to determine the actual age of rocks. A. Radiometric Dating the use of the radioactive decay rate of certain elements (Radioactive Isotopes) to determine the age of rocks. 1. Commonly used radioactive isotopes, their daughter element, and their half lives:

13 years years years years Carbon 14 to Nitrogen 14 = 5,730 years Uranium 235 to Lead 207 = 700 million Uranium 238 to Lead 206 = 4.5 billion Potassium 40 to Argon 40 = 8.4 billion Thorium 232 to lead 208 = 14 billion Carbon Atom (6 protons, 6 neutrons, 6 electrons) Atomic Number = number of protons Atomic Mass = number of protons +neutrons

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15 Alpha Radiation - decreases mass by 4 and number by 2 Beta Radiation increases atomic number by 1, mass stays the same

16 B. Other Methods of Absolute Dating Paleoclimates (Ancient Climates) Studying past climates and climate changes help us to better understand our current climate and what may happen in the future. Several techniques are used for measuring past climates, including:

17 Examining fossil and pollen records Extracting deep ice cores from glaciers and the polar ice caps, examining growth rings on trees, coral reef cores, sediment cores can all reveal clues to past climates. Tree Ring (Giant Sequoia) Core Coral Core Sediment

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19 Ice Core Vostok Ice Core deep ice core drilled into Antarctica (10,230 feet)

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21 What Does the Paleoclimate Data Suggest From Vostok?

22 delta temp (degrees C)

23 Carbon Dioxide vs. Temp Gas Age

24 Methane vs. Temp Gas Age

25 Earth Science Dust vs. Temp What About the Historical Record?

26 Global Temperature Year Temp (F) Global Ocean Temp year Temp (F)

27 Earth Science Average Temp Stillwater Reservoir, NY

28 Month/Year Earth Science Cambridge Mean Monthly Temperature (F) Mea Line Temp Why the Increasing Trend in Temperature? F

29 Mar-58 Mar-59 Mar-60 Mar-61 Mar-62 Mar-63 Mar-64 Mar-65 Mar-66 Mar-67 Mar-68 Mar-69 Mar-70 Mar-71 Mar-72 Mar-73 Mar-74 Mar-75 Mar-76 Mar-77 Mar-78 Mar-79 Mar-80 Mar-81 Mar-82 Mar-83 Mar-84 Mar-85 Mar-86 Mar-87 Mar-88 Mar-89 Mar-90 Mar-91 Mar-92 Mar-93 Mar-94 Mar-95 ppm Million Metric Tons Earth Science Global CO2 Emissions Total CO2 emissions from fossil-fuels (million metric tons of C) CO2 emissions from gas fuel consumption CO2 emissions from liquid fuel consumption CO2 emissions from solid fuel consumption CO2 emissions from cement production CO2 emissions from gas flaring Per capita CO2 emissions (metric tons of carbon; after 1949 only) 0 Year KEELING MAUNA LOA Atmospheric co Month/Year What Can Result if the Earth s Temperature Rises?

30 Biomes. Climate Shift Change in the location and area of world Sea-Level Rise Melting glacial ice will add water to the ocean, and the increase in ocean temperature will also cause thermal expansion of the oceans.

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32 East Coast ~20,000 years ago (400 foot drop in sea level)

33 Complete Melting of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (~17 foot sea level rise)

34 Complete Melting of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (~170 foot sea level rise)

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36 Evolution of the Earth s Atmosphere Banded Iron Formations

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39 III. The Geologic Time Scale a record of the Earth s history from its origins to the present day. The scale correlates geologic events, environmental changes, and the development of life forms on the Earth. A. Geologic Time Geologic time is measured in eons, eras, periods, and epochs. B. Fossils Fossils are the remains of once living plants or animals preserved in rocks. Incredibly, over 90% of all living things on the Earth are now extinct.

40 1. Fossil Types - Fossils are created in three ways: original preservation, mineralization, and molds and casts. 2. Index Fossils Fossils of a particular organism that lived for a short period of time over a wide geographic region.

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47 The Fossil Record and the Geologic History of the Earth Earth s Formation 4.6 bya

48 Formation of the Moon 4.6 bya

49 The Early Ocean and Development of the Atmosphere (Early Archean - Middle Proterozoic bya) Oldest Microfossils ~3.4 bya

50 Stromatolites 1.3 bya

51 Ediacaran Fauna 580 mya Trilobites ~520 mya

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53 Burgess Shale Fauna ~500 mya

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56 Anomalocaris

57 Earliest Jawless Fish, Late Cambrian 495 mya

58 Life during the Cambrian period

59 Ordovician Stromatolites from Saratoga Springs 500 mya Tetragraptus 490 mya Ordovician Graptolites Dicellograptus 440 mya

60 Earliest Coral Reef, Middle Ordovician 450 mya

61 Ordovician Nautiloid 450 mya

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63 Ordovician Maclurites (Lake Champlain), Middle Ordovician 450 mya

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65 Eurypeterus, Silurian 420 mya

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67 First Vascular Land Plants (Cooksonia), Silurian 420 mya

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71 C Cystiphyllum (coral), Silurian 420 mya

72 Eospirifer, Silurian 420 mya

73 Eucalyptocrinus (crinoid), Silurian 420 mya

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76 Earliest Insects, Late Silurian 415 mya Life during the Silurian Period mya Ctenocrinus (crinoid), Early Devonian 400 mya

77 Centroceras (nautiloid), Devonian 370 mya

78 Manticoceras (ammonoid), Devonian 400 mya Stylonurus (eurypterid), Devonian 380 mya Mucrospirifer (brachiopod), Devonian 380 mya

79 Earth s First Forest, Devonian 370 mya

80 Aneurophyton Bothriolepis (placoderm jawed fish), Devonian 360 mya

81 First Amphibians, Devonian 370 mya

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83 Oldest Shark Fossil, Devonian 410 mya

84 Numerous Scale Trees, Mississippian 340 mya

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86 Carboniferous Period Coal Forming Forests, Pennsylvanian 310 mya

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88 Earliest Reptiles, Late Pennsylvanian 300 mya

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91 Mammal-Like Reptiles, Late Permian 260 mya

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94 Cycads and Conifers, Early Triassic 250 mya

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96 First mammals and Earliest Dinosaurs, Early Triassic 210 mya

97 Coelophysis, New York s Dinosaur 210 mya

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99 Jurassic Dinosaurs mya

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104 Earliest Birds, Middle Jurassic 160 mya

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106 First Flowering Plants, Early Cretaceous 120 mya

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108 Large Mammals, Tertiary Period mya

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114 Hominids 3-4 mya

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117 Chimp Australopithecus africanus Human

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119 Ape Modern human Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus afarensis 3-4 mya

120 Lucy

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124 Australopithecus africanus mya

125 Taung Child

126 Homo habilis mya

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128 Homo ergaster mya

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130 Homo erectus 1 million - 230,000 years ago

131 Flores Man, Homo floresiensis (Homo erectus?) 18,000 ya

132 Homo heidelbergensis 300,00-125,000 ya

133 Homo neanderthalensis 200,000-30,000 ya

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135 Homo sapiens (modern humans) ~90,000 - present Cro Magnon

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137 Evolution of Life Charles Darwin ( ) The Origin of the Species, Descent with modification and Natural selection

138 1. There are variations within species 2. Those variations are inherited 3. More offspring are produced than can survive.

139 4. Offspring with a favorable adaptation that helps them survive, reproduces. Evidence of Evolution the fossil record, biogeography, genetics, microevolution.

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147 The Tree of Life and Phylogenetics:

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