Introduction to Earth s s Spheres The Benchmark
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1 Introduction to Earth s s Spheres The Benchmark
2 Volcanism Volcanic eruptions Effusive: lavas (e.g., Kilauea)
3 Volcanism Volcanic eruptions Explosive: pyroclastic rocks (e.g., Krakatau)
4 Factors Governing Volcanic Activity Properties of magma inter-related related Composition Viscosity Gas content Komatiite: ~40% SiO 2 Basalt: ~50% SiO 2 Andesite: ~60% SiO 2 Rhyolite: ~70% SiO 2 low SiO 2 high SiO 2
5 Factors Governing Volcanic Activity Properties of magma Viscosity high SiO 2 low SiO 2
6 Factors Governing Volcanic Activity Properties of magma Gas content Volcano Location Kilauea Hawaii Kilauea Hawaii Usu Japan Usu Japan Galeras Colombia Nevado del Ruiz Colombia Erta Ale Ethiopia Activity Date Lava lake 1918 Lava lake 1983 Dome 1954 Dome 1985 Dome 1990 Crater 1986 Lava lake 1974 Temp ( o C) 1,170 1, ,130 H 2 O 370, , , , , , ,000 CO 2 489,000 31,500 12, , , ,000 SO 2 118, , ,030 (+H S) 2 1,100 67,800 H 2 S 400 6, ,400 6,200 HCl 800 1, , ,200 HF -- 1, Ar H 2 4,900 9,025 6, ,230 14,900 N ,218 2,100 1,800 CH , CO 15, <1 <0.4 4,600 Other +NH 3 +He (in micromoles (10-6 moles) per mole)
7 Factors Governing Volcanic Activity Physical environment Cooling rate Surface temperature Water
8 Factors Governing Volcanic Activity Physical parameters of eruption Vent size Effusion rate Slope
9 Effusive Eruptions: Lava Flows Composition: mostly basalt, some rhyolite
10 Effusive Eruptions: Lava Flows Distribution: (basalt) Slope: channels up to 50 km long Flat: sheet-like Rhyolite: : dome-shaped flows
11 Effusive Eruptions: Lava Flows Basaltic flow types: Pahoehoe: : flowing, ropy surface Thin Low volume Low viscosity Aa: rubbly surface Thick High volume High viscosity
12 Explosive Eruptions: Pyroclastic Eruption dynamics: Gas bubbles burst Magma particles + expanding gases
13 Explosive Eruptions: Particles Size, shape and composition Lapilli Bombs Ash Ash vesicular
14 Explosive Eruptions: Pyroclastic Deposit types: Air fall: : mantles topography, size decreases from vent Pyroclastic flow: channel flow from collapsed column hot rapid movement
15 Major Types of Volcanoes Classified by: Ratio of lava flows to pyroclastic rocks Magma composition Volcano slope Shape of vent Rate and volume of eruption
16 Major Types of Volcanoes
17 Major Types of Volcanoes Shield volcanoes: : Hawaiian style Eruption with central craters or radial fracture / fissure eruption Lava flows, basaltic Gentle slope Low eruption rate
18 Major Types of Volcanoes Composite volcanoes: : circum-pacific belt Crater or caldera (> 1 km diameter) Mixed lava flows and pyroclastic rocks Andesite and rhyolite Relatively steep slopes High eruption rate
19 Major Types of Volcanoes Cinder cones: Basalt to rhyolite, pyroclastic rocks Small, steep slopes Erupted from craters
20 Major Types of Volcanoes Fissure eruptions: Continental: : flood basalts (e.g., Columbia River Plateau, NW USA) 200,000 km 2 area x 0.8 km thick
21 Major Types of Volcanoes Fissure eruptions: Continental: : flood basalts (e.g., Columbia River Plateau, NW USA and Deccan Flood Basalts, India) 500,000 km 2 area x ~1 km thick
22 Fissure Major Types of Volcanoes eruptions: Submarine: : rift zones; pillows Large volume rapidly extruded Plains: several km thick
23 Major Types of Volcanoes Calderas: : Yellowstone Park (0.6 Ma) Rapid withdrawal of magma causes collapse Rhyolite to andesite, pyroclastic rocks Mostly pyroclastic flows > 1 km diameter (up to 50 km)
24 Major Types of Volcanoes Calderas: : Yellowstone Park (0.6 Ma) Rapid withdrawal of magma causes collapse Rhyolite to andesite, pyroclastic rocks Mostly pyroclastic flows > 1 km diameter (up to 50 km)
25 Earth s s Interior Earth structure based on composition Radius: 6371 km Crust: 7 to 60 km thick Mantle: ~2900 km thick Core Outer: ~2250 km thick Inner: ~1220 km thick But we can only see stuff at the surface!
26 Earth s s Interior: Seismic Waves P & S seismic waves - earthquakes P waves: : push-pull pull waves fast waves, slow down in fluids S waves: : shear waves slow waves, do not travel through fluids refract at layer boundaries higher density - higher velocity
27 Earth s s Crust Outer layer of rock Oceanic crust: basaltic, 7 km thick Continental crust: granitic, 30 to 60 km thick low SiO 2 high SiO 2??? SiO 2 change in composition change in density
28 Earth s s Mantle: ~ 2900 km thick 82% of volume 68% of mass
29 Earth s s Mantle Composition of upper mantle - ultramafic Rock fragments Oceanic slabs Seismic velocity Seismic velocity: crust mantle core increases with depth
30 Earth s s Core 16% of volume 32% of mass Structure: Outer core: liquid (S- wave shadow zone) Inner core: solid (P-wave shadow zone) Core density and composition:?
31 Earth s s Core: Magnetic Field Electrically conductive Motion in fluid Core density and composition:?
32 Core Density and Composition Density (composition) of Earth: 5.5 g/cm 3 Seismic waves: composition Mass balance Crust: 2.7 (granite) / 3.0 basalt Mantle: ultramafic ~3.3 upper to ~3.8 to 5? at base Crust and Mantle: 85% of Earth s s volume
33 Core Density and Composition 85% of volume has a density < 3.8? & the total volume has a density of ~ 5.5 What is the density of the remaining 15%?
34 Core Density and Composition Outer core P): Fe ~10 g/cm 3 Inner core (@T, P): Fe ~12 g/cm 3 Wt% Fe O Si Mg Earth Earth Earth Bulk composition of the Earth: iron-rich rich Crust: oxygen and silicon Ca Al Ni Na S
35 The Earth s s Surface Important factors for Plate Tectonics: Rate of heat flow: tectonic style Water: influences melting point
36 Plate Tectonics Plate boundaries: heat flow/magma generation
37 Plate Tectonics Divergent: plates move apart Usually oceanic, but also continental Tensional
38 Plate Tectonics Convergent: plates moving together compressional
39 Plate Tectonics: Dynamic System Size and shape of plates change Appalachian Mountains: active margin off east coast of North America is now passive
40 Plate Tectonics: Dynamic System Size and shape of continents and oceans change Subduction,, sea- floor spreading Oceans: ~200 Ma Continents: ~4 Ga
41 Driving Forces Heat Loss Mantle forces: rolling currents Plate forces: slab pull and ridge push Mantle plumes: from lower mantle
42 Driving Forces Heat Loss Rate of heat loss: 200 o C/10 9 years (billion)
43 Driving Forces Heat Loss Where is heat lost from? 70% - magma production at plate boundaries 20% - conduction through continents 10% - radioactive decay in crust
44 Driving Forces Heat Loss What is the rate of heat flow over time? Start: up to 8x greater than today Archean: : 3 to 6x greater Phanerozoic: similar to today
45 Driving Forces Heat Loss How is heat generated? Decay of radioactive isotopes: : K, U, and Th or short-lived isotopes of I and Al Accretional energy: in the nebula Gravitational energy: : phase changes Core formation: : reduction to iron metals Solar wind: : electromagnetic currents
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