The Sea Floor and Its Sediments OCEA 101

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1 The Sea Floor and Its Sediments OCEA 101

2 Measuring the depth of the ocean 85BC Posidonius measured depth of Med using rope and rock as ~2000m. Same idea used for next 2000 yrs using graduated ropes and wires. A fathom (arms length), now 6 feet. Limited by enormous length and weight of rope and wire! 1920s echo sounders developed (the precursor of modern fish finders ).

3 Modern Methods Small scales: remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), laser devices in shallow water. Large scales: gravity anomalies measured by satellite.

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5 Prototype energy scavenging Autonomous Surface Vehicle that measure bathymetry - Gabe Elkaim, UCSC, Engineering.

6 Bathymetry inferred from gravity anomalies and altimetry Excess mass of ridges, rises and seamounts enhance local gravity attracting sea water and raising sea level. The opposite occurs over trenches. Variations in sea level can be measured by satellite altimeters.

7 Satellite Altimetry GEOSAT 1980s 10km x 1km TOPEX/Poseidon, JASON-1, ERS s-onward 100s m 2 cm accuracy

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9 LIDAR Beach Mapping Light Detection and Ranging) beams a laser down from the plane, measures how long it takes to return after bouncing off surfaces

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12 Bathymetry of the Sea Floor Shares many features in common with land (plains, mtn ranges, canyons, rifts). Fast erosion on land (wind, ice, running water, temperature variations). Slow erosion in ocean (wave action, currents, chemical reactions, dissolution of minerals). Agents of physical change in ocean are: (i) volcanism; (ii) sediment deposition.

13 Profiles of elevation over land and along the sea floor

14 Important Bathymetric Features The Continental Margin Abyssal Plains Islands Seamounts Ridges Rises Trenches

15 The Continental Margin The edges of landmasses below the ocean surface, including the steep slope to the deep ocean floor (abyssal plain). Two kinds of margins: (a) Passive margins ( Atlantic margins ) (b) Active margins ( Pacific margins )

16 Passive Continental Margins Main characteristics: 1. Little or no seismic activity 2. Transition from continental crust to oceanic crust in the same lithospheric plate 3. Wide and formed after continents rifted apart creating new ocean basin. All characteristics of the Atlantic (e.g. east coast of the Americas)

17 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Lithospheric Plates

18 Active Continental Margins Main characteristics: 1. Plate boundaries 2. Tectonically active 3. Usually narrow All characteristics of the Pacific (e.g. west coast of the Americas)

19 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Lithospheric Plates

20 Zones of the Continental Margin The width of each zone varies considerably geographically

21 Area extent of the continental shelf: note wide shelves in Atlantic, narrow shelves in the Pacific.

22 The Continental Shelf Part of the adjacent land mass significantly exposed during glacial periods by falling sea level (~120m). Continental shelf formation by: (a) wave action & erosion along passive margins (b) sediment accumulation behind natural dams:rock dams along passive margins or sea mounts and reefs along active margins

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26 Submarine Canyons Impressive submarine features!

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31 Submarine Canyons Created/cut by rivers systems flowing over exposed continental shelf during glacial periods (i.e. low sea level). Erosive turbidity currents slurries of water and sediments that accelerate down slope at ~50mph. Turbidity currents caused by seismic activity or sediments overloads on continental slope (avalanches).

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33 Eel Submarine Canyon, California Alluvial Fan of sediment from turbidity currents

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35 Monterey Bay Turbidity Events

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37 Abyssal Plains Abyssal plains = the deep sea floor seaward of the continental margin. ~ m deep. Formed by sediment deposition from above over irregular oceanic crust. Abyssal plains subdivided into deep basins by ridges and rises. Punctuated by abyssal hills, sea mounts, guyots and islands.

38 Abyssal Plains and Deep Ocean Basins

39 Guyots: flat topped sea mounts, often with evidence of coral reefs and wave action on top they were once at the surface Over time they have sunk due to weight (cooling leads to increase in density) and interglacial sea level rise.

40 Fringing Reefs, Barrier Reefs and Coral Atolls Sea mounts above surface in tropical or warm waters provide platforms for coral communities. Corals for fringing reefs around island. If sea mount sinks, coral grows upwards to remain in euphotic zone. A barrier reef is first formed, then a coral atoll.

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42 Moorea a fringing reef

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44 The Great Barrier Reef, Australia

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46 Coral Atolls The Maldives, Indian Ocean

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49 Ridges, Rises and Trenches Created at boundaries of lithospheric plates.

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52 Sediments Sources of sediment: 1. living organisms 2. the land surface 3. the atmosphere 4. the ocean Sediments classified according to: 1. particles size 2. location 3. origin 4. chemistry

53 Particle Size Well sorted nearly uniform particle size Poorly sorted many different particle sizes

54 Particles Sinking Rates Particle size influences: (i) the rate at which particles sink (Stokes Law) (ii) horizontal displacement before reaching ocean floor Stokes Law: V=(2/9)[g(ρ 1 ρ 2 )/μ]r 2 (cm s -1 ) Shape factor for sphere g=acceleration due to gravity=981 cm s -1 ρ 1 =particle density=2.62 g cm -3 ρ 2 =density of sea water=1.028 g cm -3 μ=dynamic viscosity of sea water=1.3x10-2 g cm -1 s -1 r=particle radius V=2.67X10 4 r 2 for r <=0.0125cm

55 Stokes Law V g( ρ ρ ) = negative buoyancy V r V 1/ μ

56 Horizontal Displacement Depends on strength of current and particle size: Particles appear to be deposited close to source, suggesting clumping.

57 Plankton Tests Plankton tests (cell walls) form part of sediment: - diatoms (phytoplankton) and radiolarians (zooplankton) have silica tests - coccolithophores (phytoplankton) and foraminifera (zooplankton) have calcium carbonate tests Zooplankton are heterotrophic and consume phytoplankton, expelling fecal pellets composed of tests.

58 Location Marine sediments are classified as: (i) neritic (coastal) poorly sorted; from erosion of rocks on land, transported to ocean by rivers. (ii) pelagic (deep ocean) fine grained, increasing thickness with distance from mid-ocean ridge

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60 Rate of Deposit Neritic: 1. Highly variable deposition rates 2. Large downstream of major rivers (Ganges, Yangtse, Yellow and Brahmaputra ~25% of land derived sediments) 3. Can be ~ metres per year! Pelagic: 1. Slow deposition rates ~1 cm per 1000 yrs 2. ~ m thick

61 Origin and Chemistry Sediments also classified according to source and chemistry: 1. Lithogenous (terrigenous) from rocks 2. Biogenous from marine organisms 3. Hydrogenous from sea water 4. Cosmogenous from space

62 Lithogenous Sediments Consist of particles from rocks eroded on land by weathering Transported to ocean as dust (via atmos), ash (volcanoes), glaciers and rivers. Dominate neritic sediments Pelagic lithogenous sediments are abyssal red clays (rich in iron) from dust they dominate in regions of low productivity (eg central gyres)

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64 Biogenous Sediments Shells, coral fragments, and hard skeletons (test, frustules) of phytoplankton and zooplankton. Tests: calcareous (CaCO 3 ) or siliceous (SiO 2 )

65 Ooze Pelagic sediments > 30% biogenous material are called oozes Calcareous ooze or Siliceous oozes Ooze type and distribution depends on: 1. Supply of organisms from above 2. Rate of dissolution 3. Depth of deposit 4. Dilution by other sediment

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67 Calcareous Ooze Dominant in pelagic sediments: - coccolithophorid ooze - tests of coccolithophorids (phytoplankton, < 20μm) - pteropod ooze tests of pteropods (zooplankton snails, 1-10mm) - foraminiferan ooze tests of foraminifera (zooplankton, 30μm-1mm)

68 Coccolithophores

69 Pteropods Cavolinia Limacina

70 Foraminifera

71 The Lysocline and CCD Dissolution of CaCO 3 varies with depth and temperature. CaCO 3 dissolves more rapidly in cold, deep water: undersaturated and slightly more acidic conditions due to high CO 2 content. Lysocline - depth at which CaCO 3 first starts to dissolve. Carbonate compensation depth (CCD) depth where rate of dissolution = rate of supply from above. No CaCO 3 can be deposited below the CCD. CCD ~ m depending on location.

72 Siliceous Ooze Diatomaceous ooze tests of diatoms (phytoplankton) and radiolarians (zooplankton) Diatomaceous ooze Radilarian ooze

73 Diatoms

74 Radiolarians

75 Silica Silica is undersaturated everywhere so dissolves at all depths, but more slowly in deep, cold ocean. Silica is only preserved below regions of very high productivity: - diatoms thrive at high lats - radiolarians thrive in tropics

76 Diatomaceous ooze Radiolarian ooze Radiolarian ooze Diatomaceous ooze

77 Hydrogenous Sediments Derived from precipitation of minerals from sea water by chemical reactions. Occurs in open ocean and in vicinity of hydrothermal vents. Cosmogeneous Sediments Material from space Small iron rich meteorites (tektites).

78 Summary of Sediments

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