Civilization exists by geologic consent, subject to change without notice William Durant
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1 Geology for Engineers Plate Tectonics Civilization exists by geologic consent, subject to change without notice William Durant
2 Properties of the Planets Size Density Distance from sun Chemistry The Third Rock from the Sun
3 Earth s Structure Iron-nickel core Silicate Mantle Mohorovicic Discontinuity divides the crust from the mantle Asthenosphere low velocity layer (in the mantle) Lithosphere rigid upper layer that includes the crust and topmost part of the mantle
4 Precision depth sounding has been used to determine the topography of the seafloor. A mountain chain (called the mid-atlantic ridge) runs down the center of the Atlantic ocean. At various points volcanoes associated with this chain extend above water. There are also deep sea trenches along the Caribbean islands.
5 The Pacific ocean is rimmed with trenches and volcanoes (the ring-of-fire ) and has volcanic island chains
6
7 The Earth s Magnetic Field
8 Magnetic Inclination The change in magnetic inclination can be related to magnetic latitude. If one can determine the magnetic inclination at some time in the past this information can be used to determine paleolatitude. Magnetite becomes magnetic at 580 o C (the Curie temperature). When a rock cools below this temperature the mineral records the direction of the magnetic field at that time.
9 Measuring Paleomagnetism (Remnant Magnetism)
10 Polar wandering curves. Did the magnetic poles shift or did the continents shift?
11 Measurements of the magnetic polarity of magnetite as a function of age revealed that the Earth s magnetic polarity was reversed at different times in the past.
12 Oceanic Magnetic Anomalies Measurements of magnetism in the ocean basin revealed that magnetic intensity varied as one moved across the ocean basin. How might this happen?
13 Based on the relationship between geologic age and magnetic reversal, spreading rates were calculated for the various ocean basins.
14 Using the calculated spreading rate for each ocean basin, the age of the various magnetic reversals was determined. The result was a map showing the age of the seafloor. It turned out the oldest rocks in the ocean were about 200 Ma old, much younger than the oceans.
15 Enter the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Sediment cores were collected from the deep ocean. The cores reached the seafloor basalts, hence we could determine the age of the sediments lying directly on the basalts.
16 Fossils in the sediments just above the seafloor basalts verified the ages determined using the magnetic anomaly scale. r
17 Earthquake Studies Earthquakes are not randomly distributed
18 Earthquakes associated with oceanic trenches extended to great depths. This was a puzzle since for earthquakes to occur rocks must behave as elastic solids. At depths below 70 km rocks do not behave as elastic solids. Something else must be going on. What can we learn from gravity and heat flow data? Subduction
19 Isostasy
20 Heat Flow varies across the Earth s surface HFU = Heat Flow Unit = 1 x 10-6 cal/cm 2 min = mw/m 2 min Heat flow variations: 1-2 HFU over trenches 2-3 HFU ocean average 4-6 HFU over ocean ridge
21 The lithosphere of the Earth was divided into about a dozen large pieces called tectonic plates. Plate boundaries are marked by spreading centers, subduction zones, and faults.
22 Types of plate boundaries
23 Fault boundaries (transform faults)
24 The interpretation of this observation is that there is a fixed mantle hotspot that is traversed by the oceanic lithosphere. The volcanoes represent the time when a particular piece of oceanic lithosphere was over the hotspot. This interpretation is still debated today. There is a regular age progression for the Hawaiian volcanoes. Similarly for the entire Hawaii-Emperor Seamount chain.
25 Seismic Tomography
26 The Wilson Cycle Opening and closing of ocean basins. Continentcontinent collision leads to thickening of the crust and the formation of relief. The European block provided the sediment for the Appalachian mountains. Horizontal tectonics with a vertical component.
27 Animation
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