From Earthquakes to Mountains: the Earth s Crust in Motion
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1 Dean s Freshman Honor Seminar (SCI 110) Eric Calais Associate Professor of Geophysics Purdue University Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences ecalais@purdue.edu From Earthquakes to Mountains: the Earth s Crust in Motion
2 A few words about myself Undergraduate: Math Physics Biology Admitted to ENS: Biochemistry? Biology? Physics?? I took my decision during a field trip: Earth science 1988: graduate school, PhD : Post-doctoral fellow at Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, California : Researcher at the National Center for Scientific Research, Nice, France 2001-present: Associate Professor of Geophysics, Purdue Univ.
3 What happened during that field trip? Rocks can be folded! Rocks can be broken up (faulted)! Rocks can be thrust on top of each other! Upper Jurassic = ~160 Myr Field work is fun! Lower Cretaceous = ~120 Myr FAULT
4 Putting an ocean at the top of a continent Mount Viso (French Alps): fragment of a 140 million year old ocean!?! Alps Mid-Atlantic ridge Close-up of a pillow and a red layer of radiolarites Lava flow in the Alps, 2000 m high (note the pillow shapes) Pillow lavas in the middle of the Atlantic ocean, 3000 m deep
5 Sliding chunks of the Earth past each other The San Andreas fault in the Carrizo plain, California Fence offset by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake Offset drainage along the San Andreas fault, Wallace Creek, California Active faults: deformation happens today! Faults have effects at various scales, in space and time
6 MOUNTAIN RANGE up Bringing chunks down of the Earth up A major fault cutting through the mountains of the South Island, New Zealand Surface rupture of the Edgecumbe earthquake, New Zealand EARTHQUAKES UPLIFT Marine terraces uplifted by successive earthquakes (New Zealand)
7 What s behind all this? Plate tectonics Surface of the Earth = rigid plates moving with respect to each other: Diverging motion => creation of oceans Converging motion => consumption of oceans Mountains = ancient oceans s: searching for information in the oceans to better understand mountains
8 Plate tectonics: continents in motion Continents are carried by plates Continents can spread apart oceans Continents can collide mountains
9 Back to myself 1980 s: if mountains used to be oceans, let s study present-day oceans to learn about mountains! 1988: I went to graduate school to study boundaries between tectonic plates Any volunteers for a cruise in the Caribbean? Marine investigations Field observations Geophysical modeling It s moving, but how fast? Want to do field work? Sure Two plates sliding against each other: spectacular topography!
10 The Global Positioning System (GPS) A constellation of satellites broadcasting a radio signal towards the Earth GPS antenna and receivers record and decode the radio signal into satellite-antenna distances Three distances => solve for latitude, longitude, elevation Precision: $100 receiver 100 m $10,000 receiver 1 mm (with sophisticated data post-processing )
11 A wide range of applications Navigation (ships, airplanes, etc), surveying, military operations, etc Geophysics: measuring the motions of the Earth s crust 1990 s: development of space geodesy.
12 Field measurements with GPS Baikal Lake, Siberia, 1999 Mongolia, 1998 Owens Valley, California, 2002
13 Measuring current plate motions with GPS
14 Measuring deformation across the San Andreas fault in California Displacement measured by GPS (mm/yr) Distance with respect to the San Andreas fault (km) During the period: GPS-derived velocities in Southern California ( ). Velocities are shown with respect to North America. The active faults of California are shown in orange. The fault is not slipping It is locked! The area around the fault is deforming
15 Measuring fault motion during the Landers earthquake (M=7.2, June 1992, California) Distance variation (cm) Variation of distance between sites GOLD and PIN1 measured by GPS Displacements due to the Landers earthquake measured by GPS and radar interferometry Day of year (1992) Road offset by the Landers earthquake fault
16 Let s put all this together Between earthquakes: Faults are locked Area around faults accumulate deformation Animation: R. Stein, USGS During an earthquake: A fault slips suddenly The deformation accumulated around the fault is released Stresses around the fault are modified
17 Earthquakes triggering earthquakes? More likely to fail Bolnay earthquake, 1905, M=8.4 Triggering? Coulomb stress changes (bars) Gobi Altai earthquake, 1957, M= km Less likely to fail Stress changes caused by the 1905, Bolnay earthquake: get away from the red areas!
18 From earthquakes to mountains: the collision of India with Eurasia India-Eurasia convergence since 70Myr Closure of a paleoocean (Tethys) Collision between India and Eurasia continental margins Himalayan orogeny India-Eurasia convergence continues after collision the deformation penetrates well into the Eurasian plate Tibetan plateau Tibetan plateau Baikal Mongolia Himalaya
19 From earthquakes to mountains: the collision of India with Eurasia The collision of India with Eurasia results in the extrusion of large continental blocks towards the east. GPS measurements of crustal deformation in Asia can be compared to models to understand the forces driving the deformation of continents.
20 Conclusion: New challenges As you saw, my research involves: Observations, measurements, models Field work + theoretical models Physics, computing, hiking, riding camels, etc. The face of the Earth is in constant evolution, over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales: Slow motion of tectonic plates Building of mountain ranges Sudden (and sometimes catastrophic) occurrence of earthquakes We are now able to measure very small motions of the Earth s crust: Space geodesy Rapidly increasing amount of data We can use these displacements, together with physical models, to understand the processes that drive the changes on the face of the Earth.
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