Principle of Uniformitarianism: Laws of nature don t change with time

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2 G e o l o g i c T i m e Principle of Uniformitarianism: Laws of nature don t change with time Radical idea proposed by Hutton in 1780 s Proposed that past events could be explained by modern processes Eventually became the accepted method for explaining geologic and natural history

3 Uniformitarianism The rock record preserves a history of past geologic events Provides evidence for changes in environments over time Fossils are a record of the evolution of life on Earth Geologic time may be determined from the rock record

4 Unconformities Geologic time is continuous has no gaps but Sequences of rock contain gaps The rock record at a given location may not record all of geologic time Some processes destroy the rock record (erosion) or rocks never deposited Gap of time - unconformity

5 Angular unconformity

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7 Unconformities Unconformities record changes in environmental conditions that affect the deposition of sediments. Nonconformity - strata overlie igneous or metamorphic rocks Disconformity - a period of erosion separates episodes of deposition Angular Unconformity - underlying layers are not parallel to the strata above

8 Fig. 8.2 Development of an angular unconfomity

9 Disconformity

10 Methods of Geologic Dating 2 Methods: Relative time and Absolute (Numerical) time Relative time: Reading the Rock Record Stratigraphy - The study of layered rocks in the Earth s crust Law of Original Horizontality Principle of Stratigraphic Superposition Faunal Succession Crosscutting Relationships Inclusions

11 Original Horizontality Most sedimentary rocks are deposited in water Deposited in nearly horizontal layers Layers (Strata) are parallel to the Earth s surface Each new strata is laid on top of the previous one Strata which are now inclined or folded must have been disturbed

12 Superposition In an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary strata, the youngest layer is at the top, and the oldest layer is at the bottom Relative age may be determined by the stratigraphic sequence Tectonic activity may cause strata to turn upside-down

13 Faunal Succession Fossils are the remains of ancient organisms Certain geologic time periods contain characteristic fossils Index fossils Groups of plant & animal fossils succeed one another in a definite, recognizable order Generally, organisms get more complex through time

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15 Crosscutting Relationships Igneous rock bodies and geologic structures may cut through pre-existing formations Rocks being crosscut must be older Relationships may not always be obvious

16 Crosscutting. Igneous dikes cutting across green metamorphic rock.

17 Inclusions Fragments of rock may be incorporated or included in another rock The fragments must be older than the host rock Igneous intrusions may contain fragments of country rock Conglomerates contain older pebbles

18 Inclusions. Fragments of older granite included in younger basalt.

19 Geologic Time Scale Age correlations using fossils are used to construct the geologic time column Many names derived from locations where rocks of that age are well exposed Different units are separated by unconformities; changes in fossils Originally developed from superposition of rock formations in Europe

20 Geologic Column Phanerozoic Eon: Cenozoic Era (recent life) Mesozoic Era (middle life) Paleozoic Era (ancient life) - Generally less deformed and contain many fossils Precambrian Eon: most igneous & meta. rocks; very few fossils; primitive life forms

21 Fig The standard geologic time scale

22 Absolute Dating Determining absolute time is important to understanding the rate of geologic processes The use of radioactive decay of certain elements is used to numerically measure the passage of time.

23 Two types of isotopes Stable - Nucleus does not spontaneously undergo change Radioactive - Nucleus is unstable and will undergo spontaneous change at a constant rate Isotopes of Potassium (K) Isotope P N Nat. Abundance Half Life 19 K % stable 19 K % 1.28 billion years 19 K % stable

24 Half-life Radioactive Decay The rate of change of radioactive nuclei The time required for one half of the original mass of an isotope to undergo radioactive decay Parent isotope -> daughter isotope Ratio of parent to daughter determines age

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26 K-Ar Radiometric Dating Potassium (K) is a common in feldspars, micas, amphiboles; often used to date ign. & meta. rks. 40 K is naturally occurring radioactive isotope; it decays to 40 Ar which gets trapped in a mineral Half-Life = 1.3 by Effective dating range of 50,000 y to 4.6 by the age is the time of crystallization of the mineral

27 Radiocarbon Radiometric Dating 14 C Half-Life = 5730 y Effective dating range of 100 to 70,000 y It is used to date very young geologic events involving organic matter; not accurate over 50,000 yrs.

28 Calibration of Geologic Time Scale Geologic time scale built using relative age dating methods and numerical radiometric dates. Radiometric dating is not applicable to all rocks Each dating system provides a cross check on the other; agreement between the 2 is remarkable; discrepancies are few

29 The Magnitude of Geologic Time Earth History condensed to 1 year Jan 1, 12:00:01 - Earth is formed March 15 - Oldest remaining rocks May - One celled organisms, algae first appear in the oceans November (Thanksgiving) - First land plants and animals appear

30 The Magnitude of Geologic Time December Widespread swamps form coal deposits during the Pennsylvanian Period (320 to 286 million years ago) Dec Dinosaurs dominate (Mesozoic) Dec 31, ~5:00pm - first man-like creatures Dec 31, 11:58:45 - ice sheets retreat from the Great Lakes area

31 The Magnitude of Geologic Time Dec 31, 11:59:45 to 11:59:50 - Roman Empire Dec 31, 11:59:57 - Columbus discovers America Dec 31, 11:59: Declaration of Independence is signed

32 Football field analog for Geologic Time

33 End of Chapter 8

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