Table of Contents Development of rock engineering 2 When is a rock engineering design acceptable 3 Rock mass classification
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1 Table of Contents 1 Development of rock engineering Introduction Rockbursts and elastic theory Discontinuous rock masses Engineering rock mechanics Geological data collection Laboratory testing of rock Rock mass classification Rock mass strength In situ stress measurements Groundwater problems Rock reinforcement Excavation methods in rock Analytical tools Conclusions When is a rock engineering design acceptable Introduction Landslides in reservoirs Deformation of rock slopes Structural failures in rock masses Excavations in weak rock Factor of safety Probabilistic analyses Rock mass classification Introduction Engineering rock mass classification Terzaghi's rock mass classification Classifications involving stand-up time Rock quality designation index (RQD) Rock Structure Rating (RSR) Geomechanics Classification Modifications to RMR for mining Rock Tunnelling Quality Index, Q Using rock mass classification systems Shear strength of discontinuities Introduction Shear strength of planar surfaces Shear strength of rough surfaces Barton s estimate of shear strength Field estimates of JRC...64
2 iv 4.6 Field estimates of JCS Influence of scale on JRC and JCS Shear strength of filled discontinuities Influence of water pressure Instantaneous cohesion and friction Structurally controlled instability in tunnels Introduction Identification of potential wedges Support to control wedge failure Rock bolting wedges Shotcrete support for wedges...79 Consideration of excavation sequence Application of probability theory The Rio Grande project - Argentina Introduction Tailrace tunnel support Support for power cavern Discussion of support design and costs Analysis using UNWEDGE program Input Data Input of excavation cross-section Determination of wedge geometry Installation and analysis of rockbolts A slope stability problem in Hong Kong Introduction Description of problem Limit equilibrium models Estimates of shear strength Estimate of earthquake acceleration Analysis of mobilised shear strength Decision on short-term stability of the Sau Mau Ping slope Evaluation of long-term remedial measures Final decision on long term remedial works Factor of safety and probability of failure Introduction Sensitivity studies An introduction to probability theory Probability of failure Analysis of rockfall hazards Introduction Mechanics of rockfalls Possible measures which could be taken to reduce rockfall hazards...119
3 Table of Contents v Identification of potential rockfall problems Reduction of energy levels associated with excavation Physical restraint of rockfalls Rockfall Hazard Rating System Slope Height Ditch Effectiveness Average Vehicle Risk (AVR) Percent of Decision Sight Distance Roadway Width Geologic Character Block Size or Quantity of Rockfall Per Event Climate and Presence of Water on Slope Rockfall History Risk analysis of rockfalls on highways RHRS rating for Argillite Cut Risk analysis for Argillite Cut Comparison between assessed risk and acceptable risk Conclusions In situ and induced stresses Introduction In situ stresses The World stress map Developing a stress measuring programme Analysis of induced stresses Numerical methods of stress analysis Boundary Element Method Finite element and finite difference methods Distinct Element Method Hybrid approaches Two-dimensional and three-dimensional models Stress analysis using the program PHASE Practical example of two-dimensional stress analysis Analysis of top heading stability Analysis of complete excavation Conclusion Rock mass properties Introduction Generalised Hoek-Brown criterion Intact rock properties Influence of sample size Geological strength Index Mohr-Coulomb parameters Deformation modulus Post-failure behaviour Very good quality hard rock masses...182
4 vi Average quality rock mass Very poor quality rock mass Reliability of rock mass strength estimates Input parameters Output parameters Slope stability calculation Tunnel stability calculations Conclusions Practical examples of rock mass property estimates Massive weak rock Massive strong rock masses Average quality rock mass Poor quality rock mass at shallow depth Poor quality rock mass under high stress Slope stability considerations Tunnels in weak rock Introduction Deformation around an advancing tunnel Tunnel deformation analysis Definition of failure criterion Analysis of tunnel behaviour Dimensionless plots of tunnel deformation Estimates of support capacity Practical example Estimate of rock mass properties Large Powerhouse caverns in weak rock Introduction Rock mass strength In situ stress conditions Stresses around underground caverns near the toes of slopes Determination of steel lining length for pressure tunnels Pillar size between excavations Problems in using a concrete arch in weak rock Crane beams Choice of cavern shapes Influence of joints and bedding planes Design of reinforcement Estimating support pressures Design of rockbolt and cable support Use of shotcrete linings Support installation sequences Excavation methods Cavern instrumentation Summary and conclusions...254
5 Table of Contents vii 14 Rockbolts and cables Introduction Rockbolts Mechanically anchored rockbolts Resin anchored rockbolts Dowels Grouted dowels Friction dowels or 'Split Set' stabilisers 'Swellex' dowels Load-deformation characteristics Cables Bond strength Grouts and grouting Cable installation Cables for slope reinforcement Shotcrete support Introduction Shotcrete technology Dry mix shotcrete Wet mix shotcrete Steel fibre reinforced micro silica shotcrete Mesh reinforced shotcrete Shotcrete applications Design of shotcrete support Blasting damage in rock Introduction Historical perspective Blasting damage Damage control Blasting design and control Conclusion References...299
6 viii Acknowledgements Some of the material contained in Chapters 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 14 and 15 if from a book by Hoek, E, Kaiser, P.K. and Bawden W.F. entitled Support of Underground Excavations in Hard Rock that was published by A.A. Balkema of Rotterdam in Permission from Mr A.A. Balkema to reproduce this material is gratefully acknowledged. An order for this book is reproduced overleaf. This order form should be sent to one of the following addresses: A.A. Balkema Publishers, P.O. Box 1675, 3000 BR Rotterdam, Netherlands (Fax ) For customers in USA and Canada A.A. Balkema Publishers, Old Post Road, Brookfield, VT (Fax ) A.A. Balkema Publishers can also be reached by at balkema@balkema.nl and on the Internet at Some of the material contained in Chapter 11 on Rock Mass Properties is from a paper and a technical note published in the International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences and permission from Elsevier Science to reproduce this material is gratefully acknowledged. The references are: Hoek, E. and Brown, E.T. Practical estimates of rock mass strength. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol. 34, No. 8, pp , Hoek, E. Reliability of Hoek-Brown estimates of rock mass properties and their impact on design. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol. 35, No. 1, pp 63-68, The International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences can be accessed on the Internet at
7 iv A.A.Balkema Publishers Order Form: Hoek, E., P.K.Kaiser & W.F.Bawden: Support of underground excavations in hard rock 1995, 28 cm, 232 pages Hard cover edition ( ) Dutch fl.95 / US $45.00 / UK 32 Student edition (paper back) ( ) Dutch fl.45/ US $19.50/ UK 16 A comprehensive volume dealing with the design of rockbolts, dowels, cables bolts and shotcrete for underground excavations in hard rock. Many practical examples are given and extensive use is made of user-friendly software developed specifically for this application (available separate). Topics covered include rock mass classification systems, shear strength of discontinuities, analysis of structurally controlled failures, in situ and included stresses, estimating rock mass strength, support design for overstressed rock as well as discussions on different types of underground support. Please fill out the following to order the book: Personal Information (Please print) Name: Address: City: Zipcode: Country: Telephone: Telefax: Type of payement pro-forma invoice (postage will be charged extra) Travellers cheque Personal cheque (drawn on a bank in USA or UK) Credit card (Deliveries are made only to the address of the account or credit card holder) Card Type and Number: / Expiry Date: Signature: Bankers: ING Bank, Schiekade, Rotterdam. Account No.:
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