Disaster Mitigation Geotechnology. Introduction What is geohazard? Types of geostructures and geohazards

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1 Disaster Mitigation Geotechnology 1 Introduction What is geohazard? Types of geostructures and geohazards

2 Introduction You know what geotechnical disasters are like. Let us have some structured view of them. Terms: Risk & Hazard : how are they different?

3 Niigata Earthquake in

4 %E7%8F%BE%E8%B1%A1 Niigata earthquake in 1964

5

6

7 East Japan earthquake in

8 East Japan earthquake in

9

10

11 From Wikipedia A hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment. Most hazards are dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm; however, once a hazard becomes "active", it can create an emergency situation. A hazard does not exist when it is not happening. A hazardous situation that has come to pass is called an incident. Hazard and vulnerability interact together to create risk. Risk = Likelihood of Occurrence x Seriousness if incident occurred Hazard & vulnerability

12 Hazards are sometimes classified into three modes: Dormant The situation environment is currently affected. For instance, a hillside may be unstable, with the potential for a landslide, but there is nothing below or on the hillside that could be affected. Armed People, property, or environment are in potential harm s way. Active A harmful incident involving the hazard has actually occurred. Often this is referred to not as an "active hazard" but as an accident, emergency, incident, or disaster.

13 Causes Processes / Agents Geohazards Consequences Natural Earthquake Rainfall Wave / tidal surge / wind Volcanic activities Ground water condition changes Climate Naturally existing hazardous materials Human-induced Loading (structure building, reclamation, etc.) Earth work (dam, embankment, etc.) Ground water condition changes Excavation (open-cut, tunneling, etc.) Waste/chemical discharge Cooling / heating

14 Causes Processes / Agents Geohazards Consequences Hydro-Mechanical Inertia forces Liquefaction Pore water pressure changes External forces Stress increase / decrease Mass transport Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical Freezing (e.g. heave) Thawing (e.g. settlement) Chemical Weathering / slaking

15 Causes Processes / Agents Geohazards Conseqences Mechanical instability Slope instability / flow (slow mass movements to mudflow / pyroclastic flows) Geostructure movements / collapse (e.g. retaining wall movements, foundation settlement) Ground subsidence / settlement / heave Forced displacement along faults Chemical degradation Contamination

16 Causes Processes / Agents Geohazards Consequences Human life losses Damages to structures Economic costs Ground conditions unsuitable for human uses Think about the recent East-Japan earthquake. From this cause, what consequences are realised via what processes and what hazards?

17 Types of geotechnical work Earth structures - Dam, embankment, dike (levee) - Reclamation Excavation - Retained, braced or open-cut - Tunneling (shielded, NATM, etc.) Foundations - Shallow foundations (raft) - Deep foundations (pile, caisson, etc.) Retaining structures - Retaining walls - Quay walls - Bridge abutment

18 Examples of Geotechnical Disasters What can go wrong? Let us look at examples according to geostructure types. Mind what causes, processes, hazards and consequences are involved in each of them.

19 Levee Failure of levees in New Orleans, USA, during Hurricane Katrina in 2005 Water pressure and scouring during storm surge caused the levee to fail. (ASCE, 2007)

20 River dikes Dikes along Yodo River, Osaka, during Hyogo Nambu Earthquake (Kobe Earthquake in 1995) Liquefaction of foundation layers caused the dike to subside differentially.

21 Earth dam (rock fill dam) Carsington Dam (Derbyshire, England) (Skempton and Vaughan, 1993) Instability occurs prior to completion in 1984.

22 Road embankment Failure of Tomei Express Way embankment collapse in 2009 due to earthquake. High ground water level and weathering / slaking of mudrock fill are suspected.

23 Tunnel: Collapse Heathrow Express Tunnel (UK): Collapse of NATM tunnel in 1994.

24 Tunnel: Settlement Settlement trough : Ground surface inevitably subsides due to soil removal (Addenbroke et al., 1997) (Attewell et al., 1986)

25 Excavation: Ground deformation - Underground car park construction in 1970s - Jubilee Line (metro) Extension project in 1990s (London,UK) Horizontal displacement of retained wall

26 Excavation: Failure Nicoll Highway Collapse, Singapore, m deep cut-and-cover excavation for railway tunnel, leading to collapse of adjacent highway - 4 fatalities, 3 injured

27 Retaining Walls Movement, tilting and over-turning due to earth pressure and its own inertia force during earthquake Chi Chi Earthquake, Taiwan, 1999 (Photo from Koseki, 2000) Hyodo Nambu Earthquake, Kobe, 1995 (Photo from S&F Special Issue, 1996)

28 Quay Walls Movement by Liquefaction Seaward movement of quay walls during Hyogo Nambu earthquake, Kobe Port Island, Seismic action combined with backfill liquefaction (1995 MOT Report) (S&F Special Issue, 1996)

29 Quay Walls: Damage by Earthquake Anchored sheet-pile type: Kushiro Port Kushiro-Oki Earthquake, 1993 Gravity type: Kobe Port Island Hyogo Nambu Earthquake, 1995 Anchored sheet-pile type Gravity type Pier type

30 Settlements / Movements by Liquefaction Niigata Earth quake in 1964 Subsidence of residential building into liquefied sand Showa-Ohashi: only 15 days after completion!

31 Shallow Foundations The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Pisa, Italy) (Burland et al., 2009)

32 Built on very soft clay: Differential settlement due to consolidation (Burland et al., 2009)

33 Offshore Foundations Punching-through failure of Spudcan foundations spudcan (Hossain and Randolph, 2010)

34 Foundation Damages due to Liquefaction Subsidence of power pole into liquefied sand, Urayasu, East Japan Earthquake, 2011 (Photo by Prof. Tanaka) Bending of pile due to lateral flow of liquefied sand, Port Island, Hyogo Nambu Earthquake, 1995 (S&F Special Issue, 1996)

35 Ground Subsidence Kansai International Airport 1 st island (right) in nd island (left) in 2007 (From KALD webpage) Long-term consolidation settlement by reclamation

36 Natural Slopes: Instability due to earthquake Aratozawa dam, Iwate-Miyagi Earthquake in 2008 (Tamura et al., 2008)

37

38 Natural Slopes: Instability due to rainfalls Shallow slope failures in Thailand due to intense rainfalls Photos by Dr.Jotisanakasa

39 Ground Contamination Contaminants: - VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds) - Heavy metals - Pesticides They may derive naturally or artificially Gas extraction (Kawabata, 2009) Gas / ground water extraction for clean-up (Kawabata, 2009)

40 Ground freezing Frost heave: Ground movement by accumulation of water towards ice Relevant to cold regions (USARC, 2003) (MLIT Webpage)

41 Ground thawing - Creation of thermokarst - Differential settlement of overlying structures (MLIT Webpage) (USARC, 2003)

42 Lessons Understanding Damage mechanisms Soil s (and structures ) properties Environment and potential events Performance expected of geostructures is important. It involves Understanding socio-economic context Site investigation / soil characterisation Physical / numerical modelling Monitoring Rational design / post-construction management and countermeasures Some empiricism

43 Countermeasures against Geotechnical Disasters Setting required performance of geostructures: Example of gravity quay wall (PIANC, 2001)

44 Geostructures performance is not fail-or-not-fail problem. The degree of damages needs to be evaluated. Specification-based design Performance-based design Degree IV damage in Kobe (PIANC, 2001)

45 Site investigation In-situ (field) tests, sampling and laboratory characterisation Soil properties Design parameters Shear strength, stiffness, permeability, unit weight, etc. Sampling of clay (SPT may be performed in a similar rig) Inspection of soil in field Unconfined compression test

46 Physical Modelling Reproduction of real phenomena, often in reduced scales - Estimation of deformation - Investigation of mechanisms Shaking tests on reinforced retaining wall (Nahajima et al., 2008) Failure of levee in New Orleans (Sasanakul et al., 2008)

47 Numerical Modelling Simulation by computer - Numerical simulator (mostly FEM: Finite Element Method) - A variety of constitutive models (i.e. stress-strain models) for soil - Adopted to predict deformation and failure - Check against reality needed FEM simulation of gravity quay wall movements in Kobe (Iai et al., 1998)

48 Design and performance prediction Simple analysis Terzaghi s bearing capacity theory Coulomb s earth pressure theory Circular slip plane analysis of slopes, etc. Empirical charts Liquefaction assessment SPT N-value based pile capacity, etc. Numerical simulation Physical modelling Against low-risk, less grave-consequence scenarios Against high-risk, grave-consequence scenarios These approaches are specified in design codes

49 Monitoring and feedbacks Prediction Construction Feedback Observation Observational method Useful in multi-staged construction e.g. Strutted excavation (Finno, 2011)

50 Countermeasure: Ground improvement Example: Cement Deep Mixing Method (DMM) prior to construction DM vessel POCOM #2 Sea DM Auger Soft soil Cement- Treated

51 What is to be studied in this lecture course - Mechanics behind geotechnical disasters - The role which soil properties play - Design philosophy - Prediction methods and countermeasures against disasters: how they work The past is the key to the future Emphasis on case histories

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