Wilson cycle. 1. Intracontinental rift 2. From rifting to drifting

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1 Wilson cycle 1. Intracontinental rift 2. From rifting to drifting

2 Stages of the Wilson Cycle

3 Intracontinental Rifts 1. Contemporary examples (EAR, RGR, Baikal, Rhine graben) 2. Mechanical aspects. Characteristics (Regional uplift, Volcanism, Extension, Seismic activity, High heat flow, ) 3. Models of rift formation (active vs passive) 4. Failed rifts 5. Passive continental margins

4 Definitions Continental rift Rift system Modern rift Paleo-rift Failed Arm Aulacogen Impactogen Passive rifting New information Seismic tomography Geochemistry Deformation rates

5 Active vs. Passive Rifting adiabatic decompression

6 East African Rift Volcanic activity Plate Boundaries(Nubia, Somalia) Afar Triple junction

7

8

9 2 Arms of the EAR in Kenya N

10 The Afar Triangle N

11

12

13 East African Rift in Kenya

14 Gravity and seismic profiles

15 Bouguer Gravity profiles Long wavelength low -> isostatic compensation of the uplift. Short wavelength low -> low density sedimentary Short wavelength high -> magmatic intrusions

16 Shallow crustal structure

17 Seismic profile and shallow crustal structure

18 Lithosphere Structure-Gravity interpretation Long wavelength Bouguer gravity low compensation of topography in the mantle Short wavelengths highs: intrusions in the crust

19 East African rift heatflow

20 Earthquake depths in Kenya earthquakes are shallower under the rift axis : higher temperatures --> shallower brittle ductile transition

21 Tanzania craton: seismic tomography

22 Afar triple junction: EAR-Red sea-gulf of Aden

23 Continental flood basalts

24 Evolution of the Afar triple junction Remember paleomagnetism shows rotation of Danakil block relative to Africa

25 Western US: Basin and Range, Colorado Plateau, Rio Grande Rift

26 B&R Colorado Plateau RGR N

27 Rio Grande Rift

28 Seismicity of the western US

29 B&R, RGR magmatism (a) Mesozoic (b) Miocene (c) Pliocene (d) Quaternary Note: little activity in CP NW (Yellowston e hotspot)

30 Western US Normal Faults

31 B & R extension (GPS) (a) GPS velocity across the Basin and Range, western United States with respect to North America (blue vectors) with 95% confidence ellipses superimposed on topography (Lambert conic projection). Confidence ellipses include uncertainty in the North America reference frame. (b) Expanded view of faults around the Central Nevada Seismic Zone. Faulting is shown with colored lines: cyan (historic), magenta (Holocene), and purple (Late Quaternary).

32

33 North America Heat flow map

34 RGR seismic travel time residuals Map of the southwestern United States showing the location of the La Ristra array seismic stations. Dashed lines show boundaries of two Proterozoic provinces from Karlstrom and Humphreys [1998].

35 RGR travel time residuals The P and S models obtained through inversion of travel time residuals. Slower regions are shown in red colors and fast regions in blue.

36 RGR mantle seismic tomography and receiver function showing velocity discontinuities

37 RGR deep structure

38 Chronometry of EAR and RGR Rio Grande Rift Ma calc-alkaline volcanism Subduction of Farallon plate. 32 Ma rhyolitic volcanism Ma Bimodal volcanism (rhyolites-basalts) ~20 Ma Ridge off California is subducted. San-Andreas transform fault begins. East African Rift Ma basalts 45 Ma Flood basalts Ma Flood basalts 16 Ma basalts Ma Regional Uplift (500m) 12 Ma rhyolites 10 Ma Western shoulder uplift 8 Ma Faulting 7-5 Ma Ma Alkaline basalts 6-2 Ma Flood lavas Ma Flood basalts (2 episodes) 4 Ma Main uplift (1,500m) 3 Ma Dykes 2 Ma Normal faulting (graben) 1 Ma Plateau uplift 1 Ma present Volcanism-Faulting

39 Baikal rift (<20 Ma)

40

41 Baikal seismicity

42 Heat flow

43 Baikal mantle structure Two-dimensional teleseismic tomography image: (a) averaged residual times (P and PKP waves), (b) target area with blocks, and (c) velocity cross-section. The low-velocity area in the mantle beneath stations 11, 12, 24, 21, 22, and 23 corresponds to the asthenospheric upwarp beneath the Baikal rift zone. The low velocities in the southeastern part of the cross-section (from stations 84 to 89) can correspond to a plume head beneath the Hentey dome

44 Rhine Graben European Cenozoic (~60 Ma) rift system and tectonic setting of the Upper Rhine Graben in the northern Alpine foreland. Cross hatched, Variscan basement outcrops on the European platform; shaded, Cenozoic rift deposits; dotted, Alpine Molasse; dark, Cenozoic volcanics. BG, Bresse Graben; BTZ, Burgundy Transform Zone; EG, Eger Graben; HG, Hessian Grabens; LG, Limagne Graben; LRG, Lower Rhine Graben (Roer Valley Graben); RG, Rhône Graben; URG, Upper Rhine Graben; VB, Vogelsberg volcano. Insert rectangle shows study area.

45

46 Moho depth

47 Rhine graben heatflow

48 Gulf of Corynth is just another example

49 General remarks Rhine graben and Baikal rift are near collision zone. Stresses are induced by collision and by crustal and lithospheric thickening BR and RGR development coincide with the termination of the Farallon plate subduction Only EAR is a pure rift?

50 General characteristics of all rifts Broad uplift Crustal thinning Bouguer anomaly (long wavelength low, +short wavelengths) Seismic tomography (low velocity anomaly in upper mantle localized) High heat flow localized (with short wavelengths variations) Seismicity + volcanic activity

51 Rifting Continental extension, breakup Sedimentary Basins Continental Margins

52 Stages of the Wilson Cycle 1. Intracontinental rift: continental extension, graben formation, volcanic activity 2. From rifting to drifting: oceanic crust formation, central rift formation 3. Evolution of oceanic basin: Creation of new ocean floor at ridge 4. Initiation of subduction: Ocean-ocean subduction, Formation of insular arcs, Ocean-continent subduction 5. Closure of the ocean basin Continental Collision: Building of mountain belts

53 Example : East African Rift Afar East African Rift, Afar Triple Junction (RRR type) Kenya/Tanzanie

54 Mantle seismic structure of Rifts : example : EAR P-wave velocity S-wave velocity Continental Rift Afar Transitional Zone Bastow et al., 2005, Geophys. J. Int.

55 Mantle seismic structure of Rifts : example : Baikal Zhao et al., 2006, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 243

56 Passive or Active Mechanism? Remontee adiabatique Passive : tectonic forces drive extension; then asthenospheric upwelling Active : asthenospheric upwelling occurs first, this drives extension

57 Passive vs Active Rifting Passive Plate stresses -> extension Crustal and lithospheric thinning - > uplift? Active Hot spot activity -> volcanism Asthenosphere penetrates lithosphere -> Uplift Uplift -> Extension Adiabatic decompression -> volcanism and possible

58 Mechanisms of Rifting Active Thermal anomaly in mantle (hot spot, plume) Magmatism Uplift of the region Extension Rift Formation Passive Extension due to stresses in the plates Thinning of crust and lithosphere

59 Proposed rifting mechanisms East African: probably active mechanism Rio Grande: délamination mechanism? Baikal/Rhine: associated with continental collision

60 Active rift model

61 Delamination Delamination involves the removal and sinking of lithospheric mantle and replacement by asthenosphere It could have happened beneath B&R

62 Graben valley formation In rifts, grabens are surrounded by symmetric normal faults Why graben depressed relative to horst? Why central graben often symmetric with uplifted shoulders?

63 How much extension in the rift zone? Basin & Range In rifts, displacement on normal faults (for 60 deg, vertical / horizontal ~ 1.7 => a few km at most (10-20 %). In rifts, crustal thickness (30km vs 40km) => at most 25%. In Basin and Range, extension is often on listric or low

64 Extension much larger in B & R Estimates are 100% extension for B&R. Note this implies crust was 60km before extension. (Post orogenic collapse?) Metamorphic «core complex» formation faulting and isotstatic uplift lower crustal outcrops. Typical of Basin & Range.

65 Extension Models Pure Shear: décollement produced at interface between brittle and ductile zones. Above the décollement, extension is controlled by normal listric faults normales Below, extension causes flow of lower crust

66 Simple Shear décollement persists throughout the crust, then is transformed to shear ductile zone Rift is generally asymmetric, possibly due to disequilibrium between surface processes and deeper structure

67 Temperature and lithosphere extension

68 Rifting to Drifting : When Extension continues

69 Plumes and rift Hotpots/plumes often initiate extension -> continental fragmentation (ex. separation of modern continents from Gondwana supercontinent)

70 Opening of ocean: link with hot spots and rifts.

71 Effects of temperature and extension factor on the formation of oceanic crust along continental margins and ocean basins. Oceanic crust represents infinite stretching. (White & McKenzie, 1995, J. Geophys. Res. 100)

72 Melting at MOR

73 Mantle T determines % melting Oceanic crustal thickness is uniform because it is fixed by mantle temperature. Exception at hotspots on MOR. Very thick crust in Iceland. Mantle temperature was higher during the Archean.

74 Thick crust for the Iceland hot spot

75 And if Rifting fails? Atlantic failed arms and triple junctions Text Failed arm = Aulacogen Hypothesis: continental rupture initiates a series of triple junctions RRR (trois zones de rift). Oceanic basin is created by 2 boundaries, the other fails. Many examples in the Atlantic margins, and also in the continental interior, from the Precambrian to present day.

76 Failed rifts in North America

77 Filtered Gravity map (40km -> 200km) Failed Rift : Keweenawan v

78 Keweenawan rift system

79 -Keweenanwan is the deepest rift on Earth - Seismics show very thick volcanics and sediments

80 Aulacogens in eastern Canada Saint-Laurence Valley, Great Lakes, Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben, and the continuation of the Outaouais Valley of Lake Témiscamingue are examples of failed rift zones. These zones are associated with the rupture of the Laurentia supercontinent.

81 Adams & Basham, 1991; «The seismicity and seismotectonics of eastern Canada») shows emplacements of primary aulacogens in eastern Canada. Note: region labelled «Extinct ridge and transforms» probably continues in Baffin Bay.

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