Probable Maximum Tsunami due to an Earthquake in the Makran Subduction Zone

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1 Probable Maximum Tsunami due to an Earthquake in the Makran Subduction Zone Ahmed Jemie Dababneh, Ph.D., P.E., Benjamin Ferguson, P.E. and, Daniel J. Barton, P.E. Paul C. Rizzo Associates, Inc. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA ABSTRACT The characteristics of the Probable Maximum Tsunami (PMT) generated by the Maximum Credible Earthquake (MCE) at the Makran Subduction Zone (MSZ) where a historic tsunami originated in 1945 were evaluated. The wave run-up resulting from the PMT was computed at a typical location in the south central portion of the Persian Gulf. Six earthquake scenarios were developed to identify the characteristics of the MCE. A separate Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis was conducted to determine the magnitude of the MCE and to define the dimensions of the deformed area. The six earthquake scenarios were first examined using the European Commission Tsunami model (ECJRC) to determine tsunami scenarios that could impact the site. Additionally, Delft3D-FLOW was utilized to compute the design tsunami wave height near the site. A sensitivity analysis was conducted on the following parameters: bathymetry, tide factor, layout of the site, and modeling techniques. KEY WORDS: Makran Subduction Zone; Persian Gulf; Pasni, Delft3D; ECJRC; Maximum Credible Earthquake NOMENCLATURE ECJRC: ISZ: MSL: MSZ: NGDC: NOAA: NRC: MCE: PMT: PSHA: SWL: UAE: European Commission Joint Research Center Indian Subduction Zone Mean Sea Level Makran Subduction Zone National Geophysical Data Center (USA) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA) United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission Maximum Credible Earthquake Probable Maximum Tsunami Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment Still Water Level United Arab Emirates INTRODUCTION Background Previous research has been conducted on historic tsunamis that affected the Persian Gulf (Jordan, 2008; Jordan et al., 2007; Carayannis, 2006). Most of the historical tsunamis have been generated by earthquakes in the Indian Ocean, not within the Gulf. There are two main tsunamigenic sources that can trigger tsunami due to earthquakes in the Indian Ocean basin and affect the Gulf: the ISZ and the MSZ (Heidarzadeh et al, 2007). The design basis PMT includes adequate conservation to ensure that the vital structures along the coast are protected against the potential effects of tsunami events. Hence in compliance with industry standards and regulations, the computed PMT level accounts for the following components: Antecedent high water levels; Increase in water level due to the tsunami wave; and Tsunami run-up on the shoreline or structure. The MSZ is not fully understood. It is thus difficult to evaluate the level of tsunami hazard that it poses and to make informed decisions on level of hazard assessment appropriate for each area. This paper is a pioneer in providing information related to tsunami flooding due to a strong earthquake in the MSZ such as the MCE and the effects of the PMT on any vital structures along the UAE shorelines. Historic Tsunamis No tsunami-specific monitoring program exists for the Gulf region. However, the NGDC monitors seismic activity around the world. Figure 1 presents the major seismic events that resulted in a tsunami according to NGDC (2011). Based on the available historical records listed in Table 1, the Gulf region has been occasionally subjected to tsunamis or to tsunami-like waves that originated in the Indian Ocean basin, including the MSZ, and not within the Gulf region. The 1945 Makran tsunami event is reported to be the strongest to strike the Persian Gulf, because of its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz.

2 Table 1: Historic Tsunami Events YEAR LOCATION ORIGIN DESCRIPTION 326 B.C.E Makran - Southern Pakistan Dabul, India Gujarat, India Krakatau, Indonesia Makran, Pakistan Aceh, Indonesia Unknown Earthquake Earthquake Volcano Earthquake Earthquake A large wave believed to be a tsunami destroyed the Macedonian Fleet in this area. Jordan (2007) assumed that the eastern coasts of the modern UAE would have likely been impacted by the tsunami. A destructive tsunami that most likely affected eastern coasts of UAE (Jordan, 2008). Jordan (2007) reported a worldwide tsunami, with ships being affected as far away as South Africa, and tide gauges registering it in London, England, and San Francisco, California. An 8.1 (M w ) earthquake was generated off the Makran coast. The damage from the earthquake was great, but the greatest destruction to the region was caused by the tsunami. The tsunami produced small waves of 3 to 30-cm in height along the UAE coasts (Kowalik, 2006). METHODS Earthquake-Generated Tsunami Hazard Assessment A deterministic tsunami hazard assessment was conducted to estimate maximum water levels at a typical location along the coastline of the UAE due to a strong earthquake: 1. Determination of the Design Tsunami Develop hypothetical tsunami scenarios based on earthquake scenarios located in ISZ, MSZ, and the Persian Gulf. Determine which scenario could affect the area of interest using a simplified numerical model such as the ECJRC tsunami model. The seismic zone that would generate the tsunami which had the most impact at the area of interest will be examined further. Conduct a PSHA for the seismic zone identified from the previous step that would influence the site the most. Determine the characteristics and location of the MCE with reasonable ranges for fault parameters. Compute the tsunami generation and propagation toward the Gulf using numerical models. Determine the design tsunami resulting from the MCE based on the potential to generate the highest water level at in the shallow waters of the Gulf near the UAE. 2. Determination of the PMT Determine the near-shore response to the design tsunami as it propagates toward the coastline. Determination of Design Tsunami Tsunami Events Scenarios To determine the PMT, detailed field surveys of any past tsunami evidence at the site are preferred. However, no past records are available for the area of interest. Therefore, repeatable and precisely controlled scenario simulations are performed as an alternative approach to quantify and envelop the hazards of the PMT, if any, at the area of interest (NRC, 2008; FEMA, 2008). Six hypothetical causative earthquake scenarios (located in the ISZ and the MSZ) were investigated (Figure 2). A numerical tsunami wave propagation modeling and simulation was conducted for six tsunami scenarios that could affect the site. Water depth data for all the six scenarios were extracted from the (ECJRC) (2009a, 2009b, 2009c, 2009d, 2009e, 2009f). The bathymetry of the ECJRC model is based on two-minute gridded global relief data from NGDC (ETOPO2). The ECJRC tsunami numerical model indicates whether tsunami waves will strike the site, but it does not quantify tsunami wave runup heights and does not compute the probability of occurrence. The ECJRC model was solely used to identify tsunami scenarios. Figure 1: Historic Tsunamis in the Gulf region Sources: Google, 2011; NGDC, 2011 Table 2 presents the earthquake scenarios which range in magnitude between 4.9 M W and 9.0 M W. The six earthquake scenarios were also centered in three different geographic regions that surround the site and potentially could be the region where the probable maximum credible earthquake is generated.

3 Table 2: Characteristics of the Developed Tsunami Scenarios Using ECJRC Model Presented at ISOPE, Rhodes, Greece, June 17-22, 2012 SCENARIO LOCATION LAT. LONG. M W WATER DEPTH (m) POSSIBILITY OF STRIKING THE UAE 1 2) MSZ NO 2 2) MSZ ,110 YES 3 1) The Gulf NO 4 1) MSZ ,278 YES 5 1) ISZ ,696 NO 6 1) MSZ YES Notes: 1) Based on historic events 2) Based on hypothetical events Figure 3: Tsunami Scenario 1 Figure 4: Tsunami Scenario 2 Figure 2: Tsunami Scenarios Figure 5: Tsunami Scenario 3

4 Figure 6: Tsunami Scenario 4 Figure 9: Propagation of tsunami waves due to the MCE Based on Table 2 and Figures 3 through 8 only Scenarios 2, 4, and 6 could affect the UAE coastline at the southern portion of the Gulf. These scenarios are located either in the MSZ or in the Gulf. Since the 2004 Sumatra tsunami generated at the ISZ (M w > 9) did not affect the Gulf, the ISZ was not evaluated in this analysis. An earthquake of magnitude >6.5 M W can generate observable tsunamis. Most of historic earthquakes in the Gulf have a magnitude less than 6.5 M W. The historical tsunamis generated from the MSZ were the strongest tsunamis to strike the Gulf, and because of the proximity of the MSZ to the Strait of Hormuz, this paper focuses only on the PMT originating in the MSZ. A separate PSHA was also conducted for the Gulf region and the maximum credible earthquake was computed to be less than 7.0 M W. Therefore, it was determined that the MSZ is the most credible region that could generate an observable tsunami. PSHA Characteristics of the MSZ Figure 7: Tsunami Scenario 5 A PSHA was conducted for the MSZ and the magnitude of MCE was computed to be 8.5 M W. The characteristics of the maximum credible earthquake (i.e., fault depth, length, width, slip, strike direction) were computed using empirical equations. Displacements were computed using the analytical expressions for surface displacements resulting from shear dislocations on rectangular faults (Okada, 1985). Fault geometry (length, width, and dip angle), average slip on the fault, and slip angle are the inputs required for the Okada (1985) model. The fault length and average slip were computed using Equations 1 and 2 (Ward, 1989): Log (L) = 0.5M W -1.8 (1) Average Slip = 2 x 10-5 L (2) The fault length and width for the MSZ are 300 km, and 100 km, respectively. The maximum vertical sea floor displacement at the MSZ for these fault parameters was computed using Equation 26 of Okada (1985) and found to be 2.1 m. The characteristics of the MSZ are presented in Table 3. Figure 8: Tsunami Scenario 6

5 Table 3: Characteristics of Makran Subduction Zone Presented at ISOPE, Rhodes, Greece, June 17-22, 2012 PARAMETER 1945 EARTHQUAKE MCE Earthquake Magnitude (M W ) Fault Length (L) (km) Fault Width (km) Depth (km) Average Slip (m) Dip Angle 3 (degrees) 7 7 Slip Angle 3 (degrees) Maximum Vertical Displacement 4 (m) Notes: 1 Fault Width = Fault Length/3.5 2 Fault Width = Fault Length/3 3 Based on Byrne et al, Based on Equation 26 of Okada, Figure 9 shows the propagation of tsunami waves due to the MCE using the ECJRC model. Delft3D software was utilized to quantify the effect of tsunami waves on the area of interest. Delft3D Numerical Model Setup and Calibration Tsunami simulations were performed using a two-dimensional depthaveraged numerical model that uses the nonlinear shallow water equations, including bottom friction. For the simulation of the tsunami propagation, a coarse grid (low resolution) tsunami generation and propagation model was developed (Overall Domain) that covers the northern part of the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and the Persian Gulf. The Overall Domain simulates the tsunami generation and propagation from the earthquake epicenter to the area of interest. The Overall Domain was calibrated before the simulation of the MCE-generated tsunami. Figure 10: Spatial extent of the numerical domains Tsunami Generation and Propagation Modeling Tsunami generation is based on the characteristics of the MSZ basin, including sea bottom deformation. Based on the geometry of the sea bottom deformation, the initial tsunami wave at the fault area is an N- wave (i.e., dipolar waves) (Figure 11). The sea bottom deformation was developed using the fault characteristics documented in Table 3. The calibration was conducted to ensure that the model can generate waves that resemble to a reasonable degree the characteristics of historic events such as the tsunami arrival time at Muscat, Oman (Rajendran et al., 2008) and the tsunami wave height at Pasni, Pakistan. Moreover, it is essential to ensure that the water level in the domain returns to the pre-tsunami normal conditions. The calibration showed that numerical estimations of wave height and tsunami arrival times were comparable to reported values of the 1945 Makran tsunami. Nested within the Overall Domain are three finely gridded (high resolution) computational domains, developed to simulate flooding at the area of interest (Nested Domains). This nesting approach allows for a more precise and site-specific estimate of the water levels. The Overall and Nested Domains were developed using Delft3D-FLOW module (Deltares, 2008a). The spatial extent of the numerical domains are shown on Figure 10. Figure 11: Sea surface elevation/ bottom deformation at the MSZ Figure 12 shows the propagation of tsunami waves toward the Gulf. The tsunami Overall Domain model accounts for the following components: The initial sea level displacement - The initial seafloor and water surface displacement was generated within the Overall Domain, and was

6 interpolated into the whole domain. This represents the sea surface condition at time t = 0 seconds. Because the nonlinear and non-hydrostatic effects during the earthquake do not contribute to generation of the long gravity wave that constitutes a tsunami, the bottom deformation is translated unchanged into the initial water surface displacement for tsunami generation (NOAA, 2007a, 2007b). The tsunami wave length and period - The dominant tsunami period was set by the generation length scale (NOAA, 2007a, 2007b). The wave period is a function of the initial tsunami wave length and the water depth at the epicenter. The initial tsunami wave length is 300 km based on the fault characteristics described in Table 3. Therefore, the dominant tsunami period resulting from the MCE is 70 minutes. - The wavelength of a tsunami determines the resolution of the numerical grid. USNRC (2008) indicates that the grid cell size should equal 1/20th of one wavelength of the tsunami or less. Therefore, the grid resolution should be at least 30 km. The Overall Domain grid cell size is km (< 30 km). The computational grids were generated using the DELFT3D RGFGRID module (Deltares, 2008b). Bottom friction - The water depth of the Gulf is relatively small compared to the wavelength of incoming tsunamis (tsunami waves are also known as long waves). Therefore, nonlinearity of waves and bottom friction effects were considered in the numerical model formulation. The bottom friction term was utilized as a function of Manning s coefficient. A Manning s coefficient of was utilized to represent sand sea bottom roughness conditions. - Five sources of bathymetric and topographic data were utilized (Table 4): Table 4: Sources of Bathymetric/Topographic Data DATASET DESCRIPTION RESOLUTION (M) 1 1-minute Global Seafloor Topography Global Digital Elevation Model 90 3 Admiralty Chart Site-specific topographic land mapping 10 5 Site-specific bathymetric survey 5 Boundary Conditions - The Overall Domain has one open boundary at the southern end of the Indian Ocean. A Reiman boundary condition (i.e., weakly reflective boundary) was utilized to allow tsunamis waves to move freely in and out of the domain. Antecedent water levels - Antecedent water levels were not considered in the Overall Domain model because the antecedent water levels are not constant in the Gulf. Antecedent water levels were only considered in Nested Domain 2. Simulation time - The simulation time of the Overall Domain was long enough (7 days) to allow tsunami waves to reach the shallow waters of UAE and allow water levels to return to normal. The shallow water depth of the Gulf slows down tsunami waves. Tsunami wave propagation in the Gulf is significantly slower than open oceans because of the limited water depth. It would take a few hours for a tsunami wave originating in the MSZ to reach the shallow waters of UAE. The design tsunami was determined using the Overall Domain model. The design tsunami was then nested with the higher resolution domains to determine the near-shore interaction. Figure 12: Propagation of tsunami waves toward the Strait of Hormuz Note: The upper and lower figures illustrate the propagation of the waves 10 minutes and 30 minutes, respectively, after the initiation of the tsunami at MSZ. Determination of the earthquake-generated PMT Tsunami Inundation Analysis The tsunami water levels generated by the design tsunami at the mouth of the Strait of Hormuz using the Overall Domain model were incorporated into the first (i.e., largest) nested domain (Nested Domain 1) as an input at the boundaries. The tsunami water levels generated using Nested Domain 1 model were used as input to the second nested domain (Nested Domain 2). Water levels were also adjusted at the boundary conditions of Nested Domain 2 to account for the antecedent water level. The antecedent water level includes the 10-percent probability of exceedance high tide (1.03 m) and sea level anomaly (0.1 m) for a total antecedent water level is 1.13 m MSL (including a 10-percent high tide of 1.03 m, and sea level anomaly of 0.1 m). Note that the antecedent water levels were incorporated into the model to account for the effect of friction on the total water depth. The time series water level results of Nested Domain 2 were fed to the smallest and highest resolution domain (Nested Domain 3) to

7 compute the run-up and inundation at the area of interest. The three nested numerical models account for the following components: Results of the Overall Domain: The water levels at the open boundaries were based on the results of the Overall Domain (i.e., a time series of the design tsunami water level signal). The water levels were then adjusted by incorporating the antecedent water level of 1.13 m MSL. Long Simulation time: The simulation time was similar to the simulation time of the Overall Domain. This allows for the full incorporation of the results from the Overall Domain into the Nested Domains. High Resolution Bathymetric/Topographic Data: Nested Domains 2 and 3 models include high resolution (in the range of a few meters) bathymetric data. High Resolution Grids: The resolution varies from 6,000 m for Nested Domain 1 to 11 m for Nested Domain 3. The propagation of tsunami waves in Nested Domains 1 and 2 are shown on Figures 13 and 14, respectively. The tsunami run-up is dependent on the geometry and roughness of the structure or beach; water depth and slope of the structure; and characteristics of the incident wave. To a certain degree, the rougher the surface, the lower the relative run-up height. Tsunami run-up was computed using Equation 3 (Li, 2000): Where, (3) R is the maximum run-up in meters H is the wave height in meters h 0 is the water depth at the toe of structure is the inverse of the beach slope Since Tsunami waves generated by fault displacements are considered N-waves, the run-up from Equation 3 needs to be adjusted. Therefore, the wave run-up corrected for N-wave effects was calculated according to Equation 4 (NOAA, 2007a, 2007b): R N-WAVE = x R (4) The maximum flow velocity in the tsunami run-up zone that could carry debris was computed based on the FEMA (2008) methodology (Equations 5): (5) Where, u max = maximum flow velocity in m/s g is the gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m 2 /s R is run-up level is meters Z is the existing grade level Figure 13: Propagation of tsunami waves toward the Gulf Note: The tsunami waves get reflected and dampened while entering the Strait of Hormuz. Run-up Estimation Run-up height is the vertical elevation reached by the wave, and runup length is the horizontal distance the tsunami propagates inland, usually referred to as inundation. There are no long records of historic tsunami run-up incidents at the UAE coastline. Therefore, a probabilistic run-up estimate was not conducted. Instead, tsunami run-up was computed using an empirical equation that was developed based on physical models (NOAA, 2007a, 2007b; Li, 2000). Moreover, the 2-D Nested Domain 3 numerical model that was developed to estimate the tsunami inundation depth was utilized for comparison purposes. The inundation of the shoreline is shown on Figure 15. Because Nested Domain 3 was utilized for inundation purposes, a vertical wall with an infinite height onshore boundary condition at the shoreline was not utilized to allow for the waves to propagate inland. When considering the tsunami run-up onto sloping land or run-down into a shallow sea exposing the sea bottom, the topography is approximated in the form of steps with the grid size, and the existence of water in the topography at the tsunami front is judged at every time step (Figure 15). Figure 14: Propagation of tsunami waves toward the UAE coastline

8 Figure 15: Inundation of the area of interest Note: The area surrounding the Site will be inundated by a maximum of approximately 3 meters. Derivation of the PMT The maximum water level that is expected to affect a typical location along the southern portion of the Persian Gulf, including wave runup, is referred to as the PMT. Multiple monitoring points were placed along the shoreline to assess the impact of tsunami waves on the water level near the area of interest. Figure 16 shows the change in tsunami water level just before the waves reach the shoreline. Note that the tsunami water level in Figure 16 includes the antecedent water conditions. The maximum water level near the shoreline is 2.95 m MSL (including 1.13 m MSL as antecedent water level). Figure 17: Change in inundation depth at the area of interest Table 5: Summary of maximum tsunami Water Level based on the MCE-generated tsunami COMPONENT Contribution from Tsunami (m MSL) 10-percent high tide (m MSL) PMT AT SHORELINE PMT INLAND INUNDATION Sea level anomaly (m MSL) Total (m MSL) The maximum flow velocity that could carry debris is approximately 4 m/s using Equation 5. CONCLUSIONS The MSZ was shown to be the critical subduction zone which could generate tsunamis affecting the Gulf. Figure 16: Change in tsunami water level near the shoreline Figure 17 shows inundation depth inland near the area of interest. The maximum inundation depth is 2.85 m. The maximum run-up along the shoreline near the area of interest is 3.2 m using Equation 2 and based on a slope of 1V:3H. The inundation depth is comparable to the empirical wave run-up. However, because the inundation depth accounts for site-specific conditions, it is considered as more representative of the run-up height. Table 5 presents a summary of the design flood level at the area of interest. We performed numerical simulations of tsunami waves generated by earthquakes in MSZ, during the M W 8.5 MCE. Results of numerical simulation show that the Strait of Hormuz limits and slows down tsunami waves coming from the MSZ. The tidal effects at the shallow waters of UAE contribute significantly to the total PMT. The PMT was computed based on a deterministic approach that includes empirical equations and numerical modeling. The lack of historic tsunami data at UAE shoreline limits the use of the probabilistic run-up frequency approach. The PMT is approximately 3 m. It is typical to add a margin MSL of safety to the maximum tsunami water level. This margin should include the effect of local winds as well as the impact of the long term sea level rise due to climate change. Vital structures along the UAE shorelines will have to be built above the PMT water level. The final grade elevation of the vital structures should account for the combined event of cyclonic storm and a tsunami.

9 References: B. Jordan, H. Baker, and F. Howari, Tsunami Hazards Along the Coasts of the United Arab Emirates, Department of Geology, United Arab Emirates University, UAE, B. R. Jordan, Tsunami Hazards and Mitigation along the Coasts of the United Arab Emirates, Department of Geology, United Arab Emirates University, United Arab Emirates, 2008, Website: < Accessed: 26 November B. Jordan Tsunamis of the Arabian Peninsula: A Guide of Historic Events, Science of Tsunami Hazards, Vol. 27, No. 1, page 31, United Arab Emirates University, UAE, 2008, Website: < Accessed: 26 November C. P. Rajendran, M. V. Ramanamurthy, N. T. Reddy, et al., Hazard Implications of the Late Arrival of the 1945 Makran Tsunami, Current Science, Vol. 95, No. 12, pp , Indian Academy of Science, Bangalore, India, 25 December D. Byrne and L. Skyes 1992, Great Thrust Earthquakes and Aseismic Slip Along the Plate Boundary of the Makran Subduction Zone,, Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 97, No. B1, pp , January Deltares, December 2008a, Delft3D-FLOW Simulation of Multi- Dimensional Hydrodynamic Flows and Transport Phenomena Including Sediments, User Manual, Version 3.14, Revision 5661, 644 pp. Deltares, December 2008b, Delft3D-RGFGRID Generation and Manipulation of Curvilinear Grids for Delft3D-FLOW and Delft3D-WAVE, User Manual, Version 4.00, Revision 5188, 98 pp. Deltares, December 2008c, Delft3D-QUICKIN Generation and Manipulation of Grid-Related Parameters such as Bathymetry, Initial Conditions and Roughness, User Manual, Version 4.00, Revision 5166, 98 pp. Calculation Summary - Scenario One, European Commission Calculation Summary - Scenario Two, European Commission Calculation Summary - Scenario Three, European Commission Calculation Summary - Scenario Four, European Commission Calculation Summary - Scenario Five, European Commission Calculation Summary - Scenario Six, European Commission FEMA, 2008, Guidelines for design of structures for vertical evacuations from tsunamis, Report prepared for FEMA and NOAA, FEMA P646. Google, 2011, NGDC Natural Hazards Map.File: NGDC Natural Hazards.kmz. G. Pararas-Carayannis, The Potential of Tsunami Generation Along the Makran Subduction Zone in the Northern Arabian Sea, Case Study: The Earthquake and Tsunami of November 28, 1945, Science of Tsunami Hazards, Vol. 24, No. 5, pp , Tsunami Society, Hawaii, Li, Y., June 2000, Tsunamis: None-Breaking and Breaking Solitary Wave Run-Up, Report Number KH-R-60, California Institute of Technology, National Science Foundation Award Number CMS M. Heidarzadeh, M. D. Pirooz, N. H. Zaker, et al., Evaluating the Tsunami Hazard in the Persian Gulf and its Possible Effects on Coastal Regions, pp. 1-6, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, M. Heidarzadeh, M. Pirooz, N. Zaker, et al., Historical tsunami in the Makran Subduction Zone off the southern coasts of Iran and Pakistan and results of numerical modeling, Ocean Engineering, Vol. 35, Issues 8-9, pp , Elsevier B.V., The Netherlands, National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC), 2011, Website: < Date accessed 2 August National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), May 2007a, Scientific and Technical Issues in Tsunami Hazard Assessment of Nuclear Power Plant Sites, NOAA Technical Memorandum OAR PMEL-136, Seattle, WA. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), May 2007b, Standards, Criteria, and Procedures for NOAA Evaluation of Tsunami Numerical Models, NOAA Technical Memorandum OAR PMEL-135, Seattle, WA. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), August 2008, Tsunami Hazard Assessment at Nuclear Power Plant Sites in the United States of America, NUREG/CR-6966, PNNL-17397, NRC Job Code J3301, NRC, Washington, DC. Okada, 1985, Surface deformation due to shear and tensile faults in a half-space, Bulletin of Seismological Society of America, Vol. 75, No. 4, pp Ward S.N., 1989, Tsunamis, Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology

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