The Lithosphere. Definition

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1 10/23/ The Lithosphere Modified lecture of Dr. Ben Sullivan Definition io9.com tedquarters.net Lithos = rocky; Rocky sphere Skin of an apple Two basic types crust: oceanic, continental Biogeochemical Focus is on continental crust, soil formation (Schlesinger) 1

2 How do landforms develop? Is topography controlled by rock weathering OR geologic uplift OR both? Lithosphere is foundation of life s building blocks? "201 Elements of the Human Body 01" by OpenStax College Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site. Jun 19, Earth Crust Scanned by CamScanner Schlesinger & Bernhardt p. 21 2

3 In terrestrial ecosystems, it all starts with the geology (with some atmosphere mixed in for good measure). Rocks > soil > veg > animals Soil forms from the bottom up Soil formation starts with rock weathering Two types of weathering Physical Chemical discovermoab.com travellogs.us 3

4 How many different stages of parent material weathering can we identify? Primary succession 4

5 Lava: antebellum soil Hawaiian islands: lots of lava 5

6 Weathering of rock = soil, plus salty oceans Kilauea (active shield) Maui (400K y) Kohala (150K y) Kohala Kilauea Kauai (4 million y) Chemical weathering: the conversion of primary minerals into secondary minerals, clays, and oxides The origin of primary minerals: Cooling magma (intrusive or extrusive) 6

7 Silicate Minerals: 90% of Earth s crust Mafic (Have Mg) Felsic (Have Al) Resistance to weathering Weathering involves disintegration & synthesis 7

8 Chemical Weathering of rocks and minerals There are 6 types of chemical weathering -Hydration -Hydrolysis -Dissolution -Carbonation -Acid reactions -Complexation 1. Hydration Water binds to minerals: (5Fe 2 O 3 ) + 9H 2 O Fe 10 O 15 9H 2 O Hematite Ferrihydrite Especially common with Fe and Al 8

9 2. Hydrolysis Water molecules SPLIT (H+ and OH-) and replace a cation KAlSi 3 O 8 + H 2 O HAlSi 3 O 8 + K + + OH - What is a cation? 3. Dissolution Water can dissolve ionic bonds and cause cations to dissociate (e.g., Gypsum) CaSO 4 2H 2 O + 2 H 2 O Ca 2+ + SO H 2 O - O H + - O H + H H Hydrogen bonds Strong electrostatic attraction between polar molecules creates the unique properties of water *Dissolution of salts 9

10 4/5. Carbonation & Acid Rxns Weathering is accelerated by acids: CO 2 + H 2 O H 2 CO 3 carbonic acid H 2 CO 3 + CaCO 3 Ca HCO 3 - Carbonic acid Calcite Bicarbonate Solution Production of CO 2 during respiration in soils is a major contributor to weathering The oxidation of organic matter drives weathering CH 2 O + O > CO 2 + H 2 O...combined with Acid hydrolysis CO 2 + H 2 O ----> H+ + HCO - 3 or CO 2 + H 2 O ----> 2H+ CO 2-3 Remember too that soils also contain stronger acids that are more effective weathering agents 10

11 6. Complexation Organic acids associate (chelate) with Al +++ ions and remove them from minerals, subjecting them to further disintegration The production of biological acids drives such rapid rates of weathering we see! An example of chemical weathering 11

12 Carbon dioxide is a major weathering agent More CO 2 at depth in soil. Why? See Figure 4.5 in Schlesinger. Climate influences weathering 12

13 Where are rates of weathering highest? Boreal vs. tropical soils 13

14 Mineralogy of sand, silt & clay < mm mm > 0.02 mm Soil texture triangle All particle size fractions must sum to 100% 14

15 Stages of Clay Formation Clay formation (and type) drives CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY Clay particles have negative charge 2:1 clays have greatest surface area:volume ratio, hence greatest CEC Strongest electrostatic charge Greatest water holding capacity (remember, water has slight charge) ph dependent Most soils slightly acidic (except those derived from limestone or located in deserts) 15

16 Cation musical chairs Al 3+ > > Sr 2+ > Ca 2+ > Mg 2+ > Rb + > K + > NH 4+ > Na + > Li + Changing acidity? Change the cations. ph doesn t change. BUFFERING CAPACITY!! Soils with high CEC have high buffering capacity! Buffering capacity Bowman et al.,

17 Buffering capacity sweet spot of nutrient exchange Bowman et al., 2008 Anion exchange? Not so much! Called anion adsorption ph dependent in acidic (tropical) soils Anion adsorption is extremely important for nutrient retention PO 4 3 > SO 4 2 > Cl > NO 3 P loss, last plant available N form 17

18 ph dependent: zero point of charge LOW ph ZPC Higher ph Positive charge (anion adsorption) H+ No net charge Net negative charge (cation exchange) Vegetation can influence ph (litter inputs, fungi, root exudates) Weathering releases elements, weathered soil has CEC and keeps elements This balance depends on the degree of weathering, the elements involved, climate, topography, plant productivity, and the geologic substrate. 18

19 The weathering of rock releases nutrients N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na Morford et al., 2011; Johnson and Turner, 2014 Atmospherically derived Rockderived (And about 23 others!) 19

20 Available P Nitrogen Unavailable P Walker and Syers, Geoderma, 1976 Soils are chromatographic columns: continuously changing, through time, over space, and with depth 20

21 Horizons Factors of Soil Formation Dukochaev 1883, Jenny 1941: Simple but mathematical Soil = f(time, parent material, climate, biota, topography.) Binkley and Fisher (present): Complex, but likely more realistic Driving Variables: State Variables: Climate Parent Material Topography Land use Vegetation, animals, microbes Soil structure, chemistry, fertility Dimension through which soil devleopment proceeds: Time 21

22 12 Soil Orders Histosols Oxisols Ultisols Vertisols Andisols Aridisols Entisols Mollisols Spodosols Alfisols Gelisols Inceptisols Soil Orders 1. Alfisols ( alf) Enough water to cause clay migration and argillic horizon; relatively high base saturation; usually fertile. North Central and Mountain States. 22

23 Soil Orders 2. Andisols ( and) From volcanic material; dominated by allophane and humic material. Very high anion retention capacity ph? Soil Orders 3. Aridisols ( id) Arid soils; low in organic matter; high in salts and ph 23

24 Soil Orders 4. Entisols ( ent) Slight soil development; may have a weak A horizon. Can occur anywhere soils were recently formed Soil Orders 5. Gelisols ( el) Permafrost; Tundra vegetation 24

25 Soil Orders 6. Histosols ( ist) Organic soils. Wet climates 7. Inceptisols ( ept) Poorly developed, but more weathered and developed than Entisols. Poor development may be due to 1) lack of time (young), 2) resistant parent material, 3) renewal by erosion, 4) wet or cold slows translocation of clays and Fe. Can occur anywhere. Soil Orders 25

26 Soil Orders 8. Mollisols ( oll) Dark colored soils of grasslands and some hardwood forests. High in organic matter, vermiculite or smectitite clays; Base saturation usually > 50% (e.g., Iowa farm soils) Mostly in Great Plains Soil Orders 9. Oxisols ( ox) Highly weathered; Only quartz, kaolinite, and Fe and Al oxides left (e.g., tropical rainforest) 26

27 Soil Orders 10. Spodosols ( od) Evidence of Fe, Al, and organic matter transport; Often a whitish E Horizon (e.g., boreal forest). Northeastern US, mountains of the Northwest. Boreal forests Soil Orders 11. Ultisols ( ult) Clay transport like Alfisols, but much more acidic. Higher temperature; Often highly weathered (e.g., Southeastern U.S.) 27

28 Soil Orders 12. Vertisols ( ert) Mixed soils; Swelling clays, frost, etc cause lower horizons to mix with upper horizons; Often characterized by cracks. Central and southern Texas; Alaskan tundra, Alabama. Some near San Rafael Park A tale of two chronosequences Hawaii (7 million years) and Arizona (3 million years) 28

29 Weathering of rock = soil Kilauea (active shield) Maui (400K y) Kohala (150K y) Kohala Kilauea Kauai (4 million y) Kilauea Iki (56 y): Rock Kauai (4 million y): Oxisol Thurston (300 y): Andisol Laupahoehoe (20 Ky): Andisol Maui (400 Ky): Andisol 29

30 Slower process in AZ 750 K y: Mollisol 3 million y: Alfisol 1 K y: Entisol 55 K y: Andisol 1 K y: Rock & Entisols 750 K y: Mollisol 55 K y: Andisol 3 million y: Alfisol 30

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