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1 Weather ring, Erosion and Deposition Weathering: The breakdown of rocks into smaller particles Types of Weathering: Physical and Chemical Physical Weathering - Does not change the composition of the rock - dominates in cold / moist climates - creates more surface area Types of Physical Weathering: Frost Wedging - occurs in climates with freezing and thawing temperatures ex. pot holes Root Action - roots grow into and under rocks - roots pry the rock apart - ex. cracks in the sidewalk Abrasion bumping and rubbing of rocks as they collide - rocks become smaller, smoother and rounder Exfoliation surface of the rock peels off - unloading caused by uplift and exposure of rock thatt was once deep underground - decreases the pressuree on the rocks Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 1211

2 Chemical Weathering - changes the composition of the rocks - dominates in warm and moist climates - occurs on the surfaces of rock materials Types of Chemical Weathering g: Oxidation - iron atoms combine with oxygen to form iron oxide (rust) Carbonation - carbonic acid in rain causes minerals to dissolve ex. marble gravestones CCOONNNNI IIEE SSMMI IITTHH Beloved Earth Science Teacher of New York State Hydration - water weakens the rock and the rock crumbles - ex. feldspar becomes clay Composition of the Rocks - weaker, less resistant rocks weather away faster than other rocks - In the diagram, shale ( layer A ) is less resistant than the other rocks 122 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

3 Factors that Effect Weathering Factor Climate Exposure Physical Weathering cold and moist - creates more surface area where weathering can occur - longer exposure means more weathering Chemical Weathering warm and moist - occurs on the surface where the rock is exposed to the atmosphere or hydrosphere Composition - weaker rocks are less resistant and weather faster (break easily) - weakens the minerals in the rock so that it breaks easier 1. In which type of climate would the rate of chemical weathering be the greatest? (1) warm and dry (2) cold and dry (3) warm and moist (4) cold and moist 2. In which climate does physical weathering by frost action most easily occur? (1) dry and hot (2) dry and cold (3) moist and hot (4) moist and cold 3. Chemical weathering will occur most rapidly when rocks are exposed to the (1) hydrosphere and lithosphere (3) hydrosphere and atmosphere (2) mesosphere and thermosphere (4) lithosphere and atmospheree 4. The diagram below represents a geologic cross section. resistant to weathering? Which rock layer is least (1) (3) (2) (4) 5. Why will a rock weather more rapidly if it is broken into smaller particles? (1) the mineral structure of the rock has changed (2) the smaller particles are less dense (3) the total mass of the rock and the particles is reduced (4) there is more surface area exposed Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 123

4 Base your answers to questions 6 through 9 on the diagram below, which represents the dominant type of weathering for various climatic conditions. 250 Mean annual precipitation (millimeters) Approximate limit of possible temperature - precipitation conditions on Earth Moderate frost action X Strong frost action Slight frost action Moderate chemical weathering with frost action Strong chemical weathering Moderate chemical weathering Very slight weathering Mean annual temperature ( C) 6. Which climate conditions would produce very slight weathering? (1) a mean annual temperature of 25 C and a mean annual precipitation of 100 mm (2) a mean annual temperature of 15 C and a mean annual precipitation of 25 mm (3) a mean annual temperature of 5 C and a mean annual precipitation of 50 mm (4) a mean annual temperature of -5 C and a mean annual precipitation of 50 mm 7. Why is no frost action shown for locations with a mean annual temperature greater than 13 C? (1) Very little freezing takes place at these locations. (2) Large amounts of evaporation take place at these locations. (3) Very little precipitation falls at these locations. (4) Large amounts of precipitation fall at these locations. 8. There is no particular type of weathering or frost action given for the temperature and precipitation values at the location represented by the letter X. Why is this the case? (1) Only chemical weathering would occur under these conditions. (2) Only frost action would occur under these conditions. (3) These conditions create both strong frost action and strong chemical weathering. (4) These conditions probably do not occur on Earth. 9. What type of weathering dominates when the mean annual temperature of -5 C and a mean annual precipitation of 60 mm? (1) moderate frost action (3) slight frost action (2) moderate chemical weathering (4) very slight weathering 124 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

5 Soil Soil - the result of weathering and biological activity over long periods of time I II III IV I Parent rock breaks down into smaller pieces (sediments) II Organisms help break up the rocks as they go through the broken rock particles. Organic material is added to the rock particles when they die. III The top layer (horizon A) is usually rich with organic matter. More growth of plants on the surface further weakens the rocks and adds organic material. IV The soil continues to form and minerals leach into the lower levels. Soil continues to thicken and develop. Dark brown to black soil with high organic content Tan to orange soil with a high clay content, some rock fragments Light gray to black soil, coarse rock fragments Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 125

6 Residual soil - - soil is the same substance as the underlying bedrock soil formed and stayed in the same place Transported soil - soil is made up of completely different material than the underlying Bedrock - soil was transported moved Which factors most directly control the development of soils? (1) soil particle sizess and method of deposition (2) bedrock composition and climate characteristicss (3) direction of prevailing winds and storm tracks (4) earthquake intensity and volcanic activity. The cross section to the right shows the residual soils that developed on rock outcrops of metamorphic quartzite and sedimentary limestone. Which statement best explains why the soil is thicker above the limestone than it is above the quartzite? (1) The quartzite formed from molten magma (2) The limestone is thicker that the quartzite. (3) The quartzite is older than the limestone. (4) The limestone is less resistant to weathering than the quartzite. Which is the best example of physical weathering? (1) the cracking of rock caused by the freezing and thawing of water (2) the transportation of sediment in a stream (3) the reaction of limestone with acid rainwater (4) the formation of a sandbar along the side of a stream At high elevations in New York State, which is the most common form of physical weathering? (1) abrasion of rocks by the wind (2) oxidation by oxygen in the atmosphere (3) dissolving of minerals into solution (4) alternate freezing and melting of water 5. Soil horizons develop as a result of (1) evaporation and transpiration (2) compacting and cementing (3) weathering and biological activity (4) faulting and folding 6. Which substance has the greatest effect on the rate of weathering of rock? (1) nitrogen (2) hydrogen (3) water (4) argon 126 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

7 7. Equal masses of two identical rock samples. Sample A is one large block, while sample B was cut into four smaller blocks of equal size. If subjected to the same environmental conditions, sample B will weather more quickly than sample A. The best explanation for this is that the Sample A Sample B (1) volume of Sample B is greater than that of Sample A (2) surface area of Sample B is greater than that of Sample A (3) density of Sample A is greater than that of Sample B (4) hardness of Sample A is greater than that of Sample B 8. Which change would cause the topsoil in New York State to increase in thickness? (1) an increase in slope (3) an increase in biologic activity (2) a decrease in rainfall (4) a decrease in air temperature 9. Which change in the climate of New York State would most likely cause the greatest increase in chemical weathering of local bedrock? (1) lower temperature in the winter (2) lower humidity in the winter (3) higher atmospheric pressure in the summer (4) greater precipitation in the summer 10. Humus, which is formed by the decay of plant and animal matter, is important for the formation of most (1) surface bedrock (2) minerals (3) sediment (4) soils 11. Which factor has the least effect on the weathering of a rock? (1) climatic conditions (2) composition of the rock (3) exposure of the rock to the atmosphere (4) the number of fossils found in the rock 12. Solid bedrock is changed to soil primarily by the process of (1) erosion (2) weathering (3) infiltration (4) transpiration 13. Water is the major agent of chemical weathering because water (1) cools the surrounding air when it evaporates (2) dissolves many of the minerals that make up rocks (3) has density of about one gram per cubic centimeter (4) has the highest specific heat of all common earth materials 14. How does chemical weathering help to increase the amount of physical weathering? (1) by creating more surface area (3) by exfoliation (2) by weakening the rock (4) frost wedging Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 127

8 Erosion & Deposition Erosion: - the transportation of weathered rock materials Agents of Erosion Streams (running water), glaciers (moving ice), wave action, wind, mass movement (gravity) Deposition: - the dropping out of weathered rock materials 1. The composition of sediments on Earth s surface usually is quite different from the composition of the underlying bedrock. This observation suggests that most (1) bedrock is formed from sediments (3) bedrock is resistant to weathering (2) sediments are residual (4) sediments have been transported 2. On Earth s surface, transported materials are more common than residual materials. This condition is mainly the result of (1) recrystallization (2) erosion (3) folding (4) subduction 3. Most of the surface materials in New York State can be classified as (1) igneous rock (3) metamorphic rocks (2) coastal plain deposits (4) transported soils 4. Granite pebbles are found on the surface in a certain area where only sandstone bedrock is exposed. Which is the most likely explanation for the presence of these pebbles? (1) The granite pebbles were transported to the area from a different region. (2) Some of the sandstone has been changed into granite. (3) The granite pebbles were formed by weathering of the exposed sandstone bedrock. (4) Ground water tends to form granite pebbles within layers of sandstone rock. 5. By which processes are rocks broken up and moved to different locations? (1) evaporation and condensation (3) burial and cementation (2) weathering and erosion (4) compaction and transportation 6. Transported rock materials are more common than residual rock materials in the soils of New York State. Which statement best explains this observation? (1) Solid rock must be transported to break. (2) Weathering changes transported rock materials more easily than residual rock materials. (3) Most rock materials are moved by some agent of erosion at some time in their history. (4) Residual rock materials form only from bedrock that is difficult to change into soil. 128 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

9 Factors that affect deposition Velocity of medium As the transporting medium slows down, sediments begin to settle out Shape Size Density - rounder particles settle faster than flatter particles - larger settle faster than smaller particles - most dense particles settle faster than less dense Sorting of Sediments - Sorted - when larger, more dense, rounder particles settle out first - Unsorted When sediments are dropped out in no particular order (all mixed up) Horizontal sorting: - occurs when a stream enters a large body of water - velocity of stream slows down - large particles settle out first Vertical sorting: - sorting of sediments from bottom to top - largest, roundest, most dense particles settle out first and are on the bottom - can occur after a major event Ex. volcanic eruption, earthquakes, hurricanes Graded Bedding a series of depositional events that occur at different times - you can count the events by counting the beds Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 129

10 Base your answers to questions 1 through 4 on the diagrams below and descriptions of the two laboratory activities below. The particles used in these activities are described below. Particles Used in Activites Particle Diameter Density Particle Diameter Density 15 mm Al (aluminum) 2.7 g/cm 3 15 mm Fe (iron) 7.9 g/cm 3 10 mm Al (aluminum) 2.7 g/cm 3 15 mm Pb (lead) 11.4 g/cm 3 5 mm Al (aluminum) 2.7 g/cm mm Al (aluminum) 2.7 g/cm 3. Activity 1 Three different particles of different sizes were released in a plastic tube filled with water. The length of time each particle took to drop from point A to point B is shown in dataa table 1. Activity 2 Different combinations of particles were placed in a tube filled with a thick liquid and allowed to fall to the bottom. The tube was then stoppered and quickly turned upside down, allowing the particles to settle. The different combinations of particles are shown in data table 2. The diagram of the partical sorting in data table 2 has been omitted intentially. Data Table 1 Particle Size Time of Settling 15 mm Al 10 mm Al 5 mm Al 3.2 sec 5.4 sec 7.2 sec Combination A B Data Table 2 Particles Mixed 15 mm Al 10 mm Al 5 mm Al 15 mm Al 15 mm Fe 15 mm Pb Diagram of Sorting 1. During Activity 1, as the 10 millimeter aluminum particles drops from A to B, the potential energy of the particle. (1) decreases (2) increases (3) remains the same 130 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

11 2. The diagrams below represent where each of the spheres would most likely be found once they settled to the bottom of the tube. In Activity 2, when the tube is turned upside down, the aluminum particles, labeled Combination A, are allowed to settle. Which diagram above represents the sorting that is most likely to occur? 2 Explain your reasoning. Shape and density is the same (same substance) - particles settle out with the largest on the bottom (1) (2) (3) (4) 3. In Activity 2, when the tube is turned upside down, the particles of three different metals, labeled Combination B, are allowed to settle. Which diagram below represents the sorting that is most likely to occur? Size and shape are the same. 4 Explain your reasoning. Lead is most dense and is on the bottom. Aluminum is the least dense and is on the Top (1) (2) (3) (4) 4. A third activity, similar in setup to Activity 1 was done using flat, oval, and round aluminum particles with identical masses. Which table shows the most likely results of this third activity? Particle Shape Settling Time Particle Shape Settling Time Particle Shape Settling Time Particle Shape Settling Time Round 3.2 sec Oval 5.1 sec Flat 6.7 sec ( 1) Round 5.1 sec Oval 3.2 sec Flat 6.7 sec (2) Round 5.1 sec Oval 5.1 sec Flat 5.1 sec (3) Round 6.7 sec Oval 5.1 sec Flat 3.2 sec (4) Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 1311

12 Gravity - all agents of erosion are driven by gravity - examples of erosion by gravity alone include landslides dropping offf cliffs and mass movement down steep slopes - without other erosional forces, rocks are usually jagged and rough The best evidence that erosion has taken place would be provided by (1) deep residual soil observed on a hill side (2) sediment observed at the bottom of a cliff (3) tilted rock layers observed on a mountain (4) faulted rock layers observed on a plateau Which erosional force acts alone to produce avalanches and landslides? (1) gravity (2) running water (3) winds (4) sea waves Which movement of earth materials is gravity NOT the main force? (1) sediments flowing in a river (3) snow tumbling in an avalanche (2) boulders carried by a glacier (4) moisture evaporating from an ocean The diagram below shows the sequence of events leading to the deposition of landslide debris. What was the primary force that caused this landslide? (1) gravity (2) moving ice (3) prevailing winds (4) stream discharge 5. Glacial movement is caused primarily by (1) Earth s rotation (2) gravity (3) erosion (4) global winds 6. The primary force responsible for the flow of water in a stream is (1) solar energy (2) magnetic fields (3) wind (4) gravity 132 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

13 Running Water - most erosive agent - gravity causes water to flow downhill - sediments are weathered by abrasion and become smaller, rounder and smoother - the faster the water moves, the larger the particles it can transport - as the water slows down, the larger, rounder, more dense particles settle out first - sediments carried in a stream move slower than the water Ways in which sediment is carred in a stream: Solution - sediments are dissolved (ex. salt) Suspension sediments remain mixed in with the water for a long time - the smaller the particles, the longer it takes to settle out (ex. clay) Floatation materials that float on the water Bedload - sediments that bounce (saltation) and roll on the stream bed (traction) Streams Stream: Includes: any body of water with a current brooks, creeks, tributaries and rivers Velocity of a stream is influence by the following: (1) Gradient : Slope the steeper the slope, the faster the water flows (2) Volume: The greater the volume of water, the faster it flows - discharge The volume of water flowing past a fixed point in a given period of time Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 133

14 (3) Channel Shape Water moves quickest through a straight smooth stream Meander a curve in a stream - water flows fastest on the outside of a meander and erosion takes place there - water flows slowest on the inside of a meander and deposition occurs there (4) Large Sediment - If a stream has a lot of large rocks, they will slow down the flow of the water - Material in a stream moves slower than the water A B A C B C Plot the data from the three tables below on to the corresponding graphs on page 15. Create a profile for each section by connecting the plotted points. On the lines to the right, explain the processes that caused each profile to look as it does. A to A Distance (m) Depth (m) B to B Distance (m) Depth (m) C to C Distance (m) Depth (m) ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

15 Surface A A 0 Depth (meters) 1 - the outside of the curve is located 2 at A, therefore the water was 3 moving fastest at A. The 4 faster the water, the more 5 erosion takes place Distance (meters) Surface B B 0 Depth (meters) 1 B B was a cross section in the 2 straight section of the channel. 3 The water moves fastest in the 4 center, causing it to be deeper 5 in the middle Distance (meters) Surface C C 0 Depth (meters) 1 The outside of the curve is located 2 at C, therefore the water was 3 moving fastest at C. The faster 4 the water, the more erosion takes 5 place Distance (meters) Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 135

16 ESRT Page 6: Relationship of Transported Particle Size to Water Velocity 1. What is the largest rock particle that can be transported by a stream with a velocity of 250 centimeters per second? (1) silt (2) pebbles (3) sand (4) cobbles 2. What is the approximate minimum stream velocity needed to keep a particle with a diameter of 25.6 centimeters moving? (1) 100 cm/sec (2) 200 cm/sec (3) 150 cm/sec (4) 300 cm/sec 3. Which is the largest sediment that could be carried by a stream flowing at a velocity of 75 centimeters per second? (1) silt (2) pebbles (3) sand (4) cobbles 4. The velocity of a stream is 100 centimeters per second. What is the largest diameter particle that can be transported? (1) 0.1 cm (2) 0.01 cm (3) 1.0 cm (4) cm 5. What is the maximum size particle that can be carried by a stream having a velocity of 250 centimeters per second? (1) cm (2) 6.4 cm (3) 0.01 cm (4) 9.0 cm 6. A mixture of the sediments listed below is being carried by a river that empties into a lake. Assuming that all four sediments arrived at the mouth of the river together, which sediment will probably be carried farthest into the lake by the river current? (1) clay (2) sand (3) pebbles (4) silt 7. A pebble is being transported in a stream by rolling. How does the velocity of the pebble compare to the velocity of the stream? (1) The pebble is moving slower than the stream. (2) The pebble is moving faster than the stream. (3) The pebble is moving at the same velocity as the stream. 8. The cross section to the right shows soil layer X, which was formed from underlying bedrock. Which change would most likely cause soil layer X to increase in thickness? (1) an increase in slope (2) a decrease in rainfall (3) an increase in biologic activity (4) a decrease in air pressure 136 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

17 Life of a Stream Youth - high energy - fast moving - steep gradient (slope) - a lot of erosion - river creates a narrow V shaped valley Mature - gentler gradient - slower moving water - side walls of the V shaped valleys collapse - meanders develop - valley becomes wider than the river channel - flood plains develop (where the excess water goes when the river overflows) Old Age - land is almost flat - levees form - a place around a stream where deposition over time, deposits a mound of sediments - oxbow lake a cut off meander, forms from deposition Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 137

18 Base your answers to questions 1 through 5 on the diagram below. The diagram represents the landscape features associated with a meandering river. Letters W, X, Y, and Z represent locations on the floodplain. 1. The diagram below represents stages in the formation of this meandering river. Which sequence best represents the usual changes over time? (1) A B C (2) A C B (3) C A B (4) C B A 2. At which location is erosion the greatest? (1) W (2) X (3) Y (4) Z 3. The natural levees are ridges of sediment that slope away from the riverbank toward the floodplain. Which process most likely formed these levees? (1) weathering of the soil on the riverbanks (2) erosion on the inside of curves of the meanders (3) deposition by the Yazoo stream (4) deposition when the river overflowed its banks 4. During transport by this river, a sediment particle will most likely become (1) more rounded (2) more dense (3) heavier (4) larger 5. Which change would most likely increase the velocity of the river? (1) A decrease in the slope of the river (2) A decrease in the temperature of the river (3) An increase in the river s discharge (4) An increase in the width of the river 138 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

19 Formation of Deltas - as a river empties into a larger body of water, deposition occurs - when deposition exceeds the amount of sediment moved by waves and tidal action, deltas form Drainage basin - the area where water from precipitation drains downhill into a body of water. Included streams and land areas. Watershed - Tributary - an area where water flows from - surface water (runoff) that feeds a river A creek or stream that flows into a larger body of water 1. The diagrams below show gradual stages 1, 2, and 3 in the development of a river delta where a river enters an ocean. Which statement best explains why the river delta is developing at this site? (1) The rate of deposition is less than the rate of erosion. (2) The rate of deposition is greater than the rate of erosion. (3) Sea level is slowly falling. (4) Sea level is slowly rising. 2. An environmental scientist needs to prepare a report on the potential effects that a proposed surface mine in New York State will have on the watershed where the mine will be located. In which reference materials will the scientist find the most useful data with which to determine the watershed s boundaries? (1) topographic maps (3) geologic time scales (2) tectonic plate maps (4) planetary wind maps Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 139

20 Base your answers to questions 3 through 5 on the map below, which shows the drainage basin of the Mississippi River system. Several rivers that flow into the Mississippi River are labeled. The arrow at location X shows where the Mississippi River enters the Gulf of Mexico. 3. The entire land area drained by the Mississippi River system is referred to as a (1) levee (2) meander belt (3) watershed (4) floodplain 4. Sediments deposited at location X by the Mississippi River most likely have which characteristics? (1) angular fragments arranged as mixtures (2) rock particles arranged in sorted beds (3) rocks with parallel scratches and grooves (4) high-density minerals with hexagonal crystals 5. The structure formed by the deposition of sediments at location X is best described as a (1) moraine (2) delta (3) tributary (4) drumlin 6. Most New York State sandstone bedrock was formed (1) in Earth s interior where temperatures exceeded the melting point of quartz (2) on Earth s surface from the cooling of molten lava (3) in a delta from sand grains deposited, buried, and cemented together by minerals (4) in a desert when heat and metamorphic pressure caused quartz crystals to fuse together 140 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

21 7. The map below shows major streams in the New York State area. The bold lines mark off sections A through I within New York State. The best title for the map would be (1) Tectonic Plate Boundaries in New York State (2) Bedrock Geology Locations of New York State (3) Landscape Regions of New York State (4) Watershed Areas of New York State 8. Which river is a tributary branch of the Hudson River? (1) Delaware River (3) Mohawk River (2) Susquehanna River (4) Genesee River 9. Which evidence best supports the inference that the meltwater river that once occupied the Cayuta Creek valley was larger than the modern Cayuta Creek? (1) The modern Cayuta Creek occupies a V shaped valley. (2) The valley floor is wider than the modern Cayuta Creek. (3) The modern Cayuta Creek lacks meanders and a flood plain. (4) The tributary streams meet the modern Cayuta Creek at nearly right angles. 10. The diagram below represents a vertical cross section of sediments deposited in a stream. Which statement best explains the mixture of sediments? (1) The velocity of the stream continually decreased. (2) The stream discharge continually decreased. (3) The particles have different densities. (4) Smaller particles settle more slowly than larger particles. Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 141

22 Ocean Waves - wave action rounds sediments as a result of abrasion - shores are proteced by sand dunes and barrier islands Creates beaches - Formed from weathering and erosion of continental and oceanic rocks Forms sandbars - A ridge of sand, formed along a shore by the action of waves and currents - they protect barrier islands from erosion Barrier island - A long narrow island, running parallel to the main land, made of sand - built up by the actions of waves, currents and wind that distribute the sand - protect the coast from erosion Waves approaching a shoreline - within the zone of breaking waves Surf and tides move sand parallel to the shore 1. The map below shows some features along an ocean shoreline. In which general direction is the sand being moved along this shoreline by ocean (longshore) currents? (1) northeast (2) northwest (3) southeast (4) southwest 142 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

23 2. The map to the right shows Rockaway Peninsula, part of Long Island s south shore, and the location of several stone barriers, A, B, C, and D, that were built to trap sand being transported along the coast by wave action. On which map do the arrows best show the direction of wave movement that created the beaches in this area? 3. The long, sandy islands along the south shore of Long Island are composed mostly of sand and rounded pebbles arranged in sorted layers. The agent of erosion that most likely shaped and sorted the sand and pebbles while transporting them to their island location was (1) glaciers (2) wind (3) landslides (4) ocean waves 4. The major source of sediments found on the deep ocean bottom is (1) erosion of continental rocks (2) submarine landslides from the mid-ocean ridges (3) icebergs that have broken off continental glaciers (4) submarine volcanic eruptions Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 143

24 Glaciers - large, very slow moving ice - form in high latitudes and high elevations - form when more snow falls in the winter than can melt in the summer - gravity causes glaciers to flow down a valley or spread out over a Continent - push, drag and carry sediments - can carry any size sediment, including boulders - deposition is unsorted - features include striations (scratches) on the rock and parallel groves in the bedrock - rocks may be partially rounded Continental Glacier Features Esker Long narrow ridge of coarse gravel deposited by a stream flowing in a narrow ice tunnel under the glacier 144 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

25 Till Unsorted sediment deposited by a glacier Erratic Rocks that do not match the size and type of other rocks in the same area - size can range from pebbles to boulders Moraine - A large deposit of glacial till that forms when the glacier has stalled or retreated (melted) Terminal Moraine - Large ridge of glacial till marking the farthest advancement of the glacier Recessional moraine - Mixture of sand, gravel and rock that is deposited as the ice front melts Outwash plain - Horizontal layers of sorted glacial material in front of the glacier - formed by the meltwater of the glacier Drumlins - Glacial hills that are shaped like the back of a spoon by the ice - indicates the direction of glacial movement (toward the gentle slope) Kames - Irregularly shaped hills composed of sorted sand and gravel. - directly formed from the melt water of the glacier Kettle hole - Occurs when a large piece of a glacier drops off the front and becomes partially buried - if the hole fills with water it is a kettle lake Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 145

26 Valley Glacier Features - form U shaped valleys - transports any size sediments (even boulders) - deposited sediments are unsorted - rocks have striations (scratches) caused by rubbing and grinding as the glacier moves Boulders Striations Things associated with Glaciers U shaped valleys Unsorted sediment 1. Which statement identifies a result of glaciation that has had a positive effect on the economy of New York State? (1) Large amounts of oil and natural gas were formed. (2) The number of usable water reservoirs was reduced. (3) Many deposits of sand and gravel were formed. (4) Deposits of fertile soil were removed. 2. Large igneous boulders have been found on surface sedimentary bedrock in Syracuse, New York. Which statement best explains the presence of these boulders? (1) Sedimentary bedrock is composed of igneous boulders. (2) Boulders were transported to the area by ice. (3) The area has had recent volcanic activity. (4) The area was once part of a large mountain range. 3. Which rock material was most likely transported to its present location by a glacier? (1) rounded sand grains found in a river delta (2) rounded grains found in a sand dune (3) residual soil found on a flat plain (4) unsorted loose gravel found in hills 146 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

27 Base your answers to questions 4 through 8 on the diagram to the right. The diagram represents a profile of a mountain glacier in the northern United States. 4. The downhill movement of mountain glaciers such as the one shown in the diagram is primarily caused by (1) evaporation of ice directly from the glacier (2) snow blowing across the top of the glacier (3) the force of gravity pulling on the glacier (4) water flowing over the glacier 5. The velocity of the ice movement is primarily controlled by the (1) Slope of the bedrock surface (2) Amount of sediment at the terminal moraine (3) Length of the glacier (4) Size of the sediment transported by the glacier 6. If the climate warms, causing the glacier to melt away, the region that the glacier formerly occupied will be a (1) U - shaped valley with polished bedrock (2) V - shaped valley with jagged bedrock (3) Flat plain with bedrock that has been metamorphosed (4) Deep ocean trench with bedrock that has been melted and cooled 7. Over a period of years, this glacier gains more snow mass than it loses. What will be the most likely result? (1) The glacier will decrease in size, and the ice front will retreat. (2) The glacier will decrease in size, and the ice front will advance. (3) The glacier will increase in size, and the ice front will retreat. (4) The glacier will increase in size, and the ice front will advance. 8. Which cross section best represents the sediment that was transported and deposited by this glacier? (1) (2) (3) (4) Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 147

28 Base your answers to question 9 through 13 on the map below. The arrows on the map show the location and orientation of glacial striation on the surface bedrock. Dark shading shows the locations of large moraines (glacial deposits) 9. The striations indicate that the movement of glacial ice was toward the - (1) northeast and northwest (3) northeast and southwest (2) southeast and northwest (4) southeast and southwest 10. The Harbor Hill Moraine and the Ronkonkoma Moraine are believed to have formed during the (1) Jurassic Period (3) Cambrian Period (2) Pleistocene Epoch (4) Pennsylvanian Epoch 11. Observations of which feature would be most useful in determining the thickness of the ice sheet? (1) grooved bedrock near the top of Bear Mountain (2) glacial soils in southern Connecticut (3) glacial boulders at the bottom of Long Island Sound (4) scratches on loose rock at the mouth of the Hudson River 12. How were the striations made? (1) Frost action cracked the bedrock during the ice age. (2) Rocks at the bottom of the glaciers were dragged over the bedrock. (3) Particles carried by winds scratched the bedrock during the ice age. (4) Particles carried by glacial melt water eroded the bedrock. 13. The moraines are recognized as glacial deposits because they are composed of rock materials that are (1) uniform in size and layered (2) many different sizes and layered (3) uniform in size and not layered (4) many different sizes and not layered 14. Because of glaciation, New York State presently has soils that are best described as (1) deep and residual (3) rich in gemstone minerals (2) unchanged by glaciation (4) thin and rocky 148 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

29 15. The bedrock at a certain location is deeply scratched, and in some places is covered by a layer of unsorted sediment. Which erosional agent was probably responsible for these features? (1) ocean waves (2) running water (3) wind (4) glaciers Finger Lakes: Pre-existing stream valleys or lakes - modified by glaciers - when ice retreated deposits left behind dammed the steam valleys - melt water filled the valleys - direction of lakes show glacier movement through the former stream valleys Great Lakes: Formed at the end of the ice age - approximately 10,000 years ago - glaciers carved out the bedrock - glacial melt waters filled the basins - lakes contain approximately 20 % of the world s fresh surface water 1. Which statement provides the best evidence that New York State s Finger Lakes formed as a result of continental glaciation? (1) The lake surfaces are above sea level. (2) The lakes fill long, narrow U-shaped valleys. (3) The lakes are partially filled with sorted beds of sediment. (4) The lakes are surrounded by sharp, jagged peaks and ridges. 2. What is the age of the most abundant surface bedrock in the Finger Lakes region of New York State? (1) Cambrian (2) Pennsylvanian (3) Devonian (4) Permian 3. On a field trip 40 kilometers east of the Finger Lakes, students observed a boulder of gneiss on the surface bedrock. This observation best supports the inference that the (1) surface sedimentary bedrock was weathered to form a boulder of gneiss (2) surface sedimentary bedrock melted and solidified to form a boulder of gneiss (3) gneiss boulder was transported from its original area of formation (4) gneiss boulder was formed from sediments that were compacted and cemented together Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 149

30 Base your answers to questions 4 through 7 on the map and cross section of the Finger Lakes Region shown below and on your knowledge of Earth science. 150 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

31 4. According to the cross section, how thick from top to bottom is the sediment fill in Seneca Lake? 425 ft 5. State one possible explanation for the north-south orientation of the Finger Lakes. - they represent the direction in which the glaciers advanced 6. During some winters, a few of the Finger Lakes remain unfrozen even though the land around the lakes is frozen. Explain how the specific heat of water can cause these lakes to remain unfrozen. Water has a high specific heat and it takes longer to freeze 7. Identify two processes that normally occur to form the type of surface bedrock found in the Finger Lakes Region Compaction and Cementation Wind Erosion - most common in arid (dry) climates - common in deserts and on beaches - the faster the wind blows, the larger the sediment it can carry - usually can not move large sediments - larger particles settle out first - weathering by abrasion - features may be pitted flat faces and straight edges - surface features include dunes and sand blasted bedrock - gravity causes winds - cold air is more dense than warm air and is pulled down toward Earth s surface 1. The particles in a sand dune deposit are small, very well sorted and have surface pits that give them a frosted appearance. This deposit most likely was transported by (1) ocean currents (2) gravity (2) glacial ice (4) wind Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 151

32 2. The cross section below shows the movement of wind-driven sand particles that strike a partly exposed basalt cobble located at the surface of a windy desert. Layer containing the most dense wind-driven sediment Prevailing winds Ground surface 3in Basalt cobble Which cross section to the right best represents the appearance of this cobble after many years of exposure to the wind-driven sand? 3. The cross section represents a part of Texas where weakly cemented sandstone is exposed at the surface. The mineral cement holding the sandstone grains together is calcite. Area X is a circular depression of loose sand that has been partially removed by prevailing winds. Sand dunes have developed downwind from depression X. Present Day, Dry Climate Depression X: Loose sand (mixture of grain size) Area of sand dune development On the diagram of the area of sand dune development provided to the right, draw a sketch showing the general side view of a sand dune formed by a wind blowing in the direction indicated. Your sketch should clearly show any variations in the slope of the sides of the dune. Prevailing wind Ground surface 152 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

33 LANDSCAPE REGIONS Landscape Forms from the interactin of crustal movement, type of bedrock and climate Landscape Region Relief Bedrock A. Mountain Great relief, high peaks, Faulted and tilted structure; many deep valleys bedrock types, including igneous B. Ridges Moderate relief, rounded peaks, wide valleys Folded sedimentary bedrock C. Plateau Moderate to high relief Horizontal sedimentary bedrock D. Plain Valley Escarpment Very little relief, low elevations Low relief, located between ranges of hills or mountians transition zone that involves a major elevation difference, often involving high cliffs layers Horizontal sedimentary bedrock layers Any type of bedrock, area may have been eroded away by streams (Vshaped) or glaciers (U-shaped) frequently formed by faults Geologic Factors that influence landscape: 1) Crustal movement ex. collision boundaries create mountains; ex. uplift and erosion can form plateaus 2) Type of bedrock more resistant rock does not weather away as fast as less resistant rock Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 153

34 3) Climate dry / arid = sharp, jagged features (ex. Grand Canyon) - moist climate = rounded hills (ex. New York State) Use the map of Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State and the Generalized Bedrock Geology map found in the Earth Science Reference Tables to complete the tables below. Plateau (highlands) Plains (low lands) Grenville Province Highlands Interior Low Lands Allegheny Plateau Erie Ontario Low Lands Catskills St Lawrence Low Lands Appalachian Plateau Champlain Low Lands Hudson Highlands Hudson Mohawk Low Lands New England Province Highlands Newark Lowlands Tug Hilll Plateau Atlantic Coastal Plain Mountains Adirondack Mountains Taconic Mountains Location Albany Binghamton Buffalo Elmira Ithaca Jamestown Kingston Massena Mr. Marcy Landscape Region Hudson Mohawk LLands Allegheny Plateau Erie Ontario Low Lands Allegheny Plateau Allegheny Plateau Allegheny Plateau Catskills St. Lawrence Low Lands Adirondack Mountains New York City Newark Low Lands Connecticut New England Province Massachusetts New England Province New Jersey Newark Low Lands Location Niagaraa Falls Old Forge Oswego Plattsburg Riverhead Rochester Slide Mountain Syracuse Utica Watertown Pennsylvania Vermont Long Island Landscape Region Erie Ontario Low Lands Adirondack Mountains Erie Ontario Low Lands Champlain Low Lands Atlantic Coastal Plain Erie Ontario Low Lands Catskills Erie Ontario Low Lands Tug Hill Plateau Erie Ontario Low Lands Appalachian Plateau New England Province Atlantic Coastal Plain 154 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

35 1. The major landscape regions of the United States are identified chiefly on the basis of (1) similar surface characteristics (3) nearness to major mountain regions (2) similar climatic conditions (4) nearness to continental boundaries 2. Which city is located in a landscape region showing distorted and altered bedrock structure? (1) Old Forge (2) Niagara Falls (3) Syracuse (4) Binghamton 3. Which New York State landscape region has intensely metamorphosed surface bedrock? (1) Appalachian Plateau (3) Adirondacks Mountains (2) Atlantic Coastal Plain (4) Erie-Ontario Lowlands 4. Which city is located in the St. Lawrence Lowlands? (1) Kingston (2) Massena (3) Rochester (4) Albany 5. Which characteristics of Earth s surface can be determined by using a topographic map? (1) Hill slope and stream gradients (2) Bedrock erosion and stream velocity (3) Hilltop elevations and bedrock age (4) Soil thickness and benchmark movement 6. Which New York State landscape region contains the oldest surface bedrock? (1) Erie- Ontario Lowlands (3) Adirondack Mountains (2) Allegheny Plateau (4) Tug Hill Plateau 7. In which type of landscape are meandering streams most likely found? (1) regions of waterfalls (3) steeply sloping hills (2) gently sloping plains (4) V-shaped valleys 8. Which evidence best indicates that a landscape has been eroded by streams? (1) parallel sets of U-shaped valleys (3) thick residual soil (2) sand dunes (4) sorted layers of cobbles and sand 9. The landscape of northeastern New York State was formed mainly by (1) mountain building and glacial erosion (2) faulting and volcanic activity (3) changes in the water level of Lake Ontario (4) erosion of Devonian sedimentary bedrock by rivers 10. Which location is on a plateau landscape? (1) Rochester (2) Elmira (3) Old Forge (4) New York City 11. The boundaries between landscape regions are usually determined by the location of (1) plate boundaries (3) population density (2) major cities (4) well-defined surface features Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 155

36 12. The photograph below shows an eroded plateau found in the southwestern United States. The landscape was developed by the process of (1) crustal uplift and stream erosion (3) crustal uplift and glacial erosion (2) crustal folding and stream erosion (4) crustal folding and glacial erosion. 13. Tilted, slightly metamorphosed rock layers such as these are typically found in which New York State landscape region? (1) Erie-Ontario Lowlands (3) Atlantic Coastal Plain (2) Tug Hill Plateau (4) Taconic Mountains 14. The table below describes the characteristics of three landscape regions, A, B, and C found in the United States. Landscape Bedrock Elevation / Slopes Streams A B C Faulted and folded gneiss and schist Layers of sandstone and shale Thick horizontal layers of basalt (1) A plateau, B mountain, C plain (2) A plain, B plateau, C mountain (3) A mountain, B plain, C plateau (4) A plain, B mountain, C plateau High Elevation Steep slopes Low elevation Gentle slopes Medium elevation Steep to gentle slopes High Velocity Rapids Low velocity Meanders High to low velocity Rapids and meanders 15. New York State s Adirondacks are classified as a mountain landscape region. Describe one bedrock characteristic and one land surface characteristic that were used to classify the Adirondacks as a mountain landscape region. Bedrock characteristic: - faulted, folded, deformed bedrock - metamorphosed bedrock Surface characteristic: - high elevations - steep slopes - partially eroded dome 156 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

37 Drainage Patterns Drainage patterns- determined by the topography of the surface and the underlying bedrock Dendritic: - most common stream pattern - tributaries seem to flow in the same direction, creating a larger stream - looks like branches on a tree - usually on undisturbed, horizontal rock layers Radial: - occurs when the streams flow away from a high point - looks like spokes on a wheel - develops over a smooth dome or volcanic cone Annular: - occurs on an eroded dome - appears to be a circular pattern with small tributaries going into each circle Rectangular: - occurs where drainage flows along folds and faults - looks like parallel lines with tributaries going into each path Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 157

38 1. The cross section below shows the rock structure of a deeply eroded, domed mountain region. Which map shows the stream drainage pattern that will most likely develop as the bedrock is weathered and eroded from this igneous dome? (1) (2) (3) (4) 2. The diagram below represents a map view of a stream drainage pattern. Which underlying bedrock structure most likely produced this stream drainage pattern? (1) (2) (3) (4) 3. The map below shows the stream drainage patterns for a region of Earth s surface. Points A, B, C, and D are locations in the region. 3. The highest elevation most likely exists at point (1) A (3) C (2) B (4) D 158 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

39 4. The block diagram below represents a deeply eroded dome. Which map shows the stream drainage pattern that would most likely develop on this (1) (2) (3) (4) 5. The topographic map to the right shows a particular landscape. Which map best represents the stream drainage pattern for this landscape? (1) (2) (3) (4) 6. Which stream-drainage pattern most likely developed on the surface of a newly formed volcanic mountain? (1) (2) (3) (4) Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 159

40 Unit Review 1. Particles of soil often differ greatly from the underlying bedrock in color, mineral composition, and organic content. Which conclusion about these soil particles is best made from this evidence? (1) They are residual sediments. (3) They are transported sediments. (2) They are uniformly large-grained. (4) They are soluble in water. 2. The diagram below shows a soil profile formed in an area of granite bedrock. Four different soil horizons., A, B, C and D are shown. Which soil horizon contains the greatest amount of material formed by biological activity? (1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D 3. Which characteristicc of a particle would usually result in the longest settling time for the particle in calm water? (1) low density and round shape (3) low density and flat shape (2) high density and round shape (4) high density and flat shape 4. Which graph best shows the relationship between wind speed and the average height of ocean waves formed by the wind? Average wave height Average wave height Average wave height Average wave height Wind speed Wind speed Wind speed Wind speed (1) (2) (3) (4) 5. Which particles are the last to settle as a river s velocity decreases? (1) flattened clay particles (3) rounded silt particles (2) rounded sand particles (4) flattened pebbles 160 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

41 6. The chart to the right indicates the densities of four different minerals. If spheres 5 millimeters in diameter of these four minerals are dropped at the same time into a large tube filled with water, which would settle to the bottom first? (1) calcite (3) diamond (2) hematite (4) quartz Mineral Calcite Diamond Hematite Quartz Density (g/cm 3 ) A glass sphere and a lead sphere have the same volume. Each sphere is dropped into a container of water. Which statement best explains why the lead sphere settles faster? (1) The lead sphere has a higher density. (2) The glass sphere has a smoother surface. (3) The lead sphere takes up less space. (4) The glass sphere has more surface area. 8. The chart to the right shows the Sample A Sample B Sample C results of an activity in which three sec sec sec samples of copper (A, B, and C) of equal mass were timed as they settled to the bottom of a column of water. The differences in the settling time of the three samples are probably due to differences in their (1) density (2) composition (3) color (4) shape 9. When particles of uniform shape and density are dropped into a calm lake, silt will settle faster than (1) sand (2) clay (3) cobbles (4) pebbles 10. Where is the most deposition likely to occur? (1) on the side of a sand dune facing the wind (2) at the mouth of a river, where it enters an ocean (3) at a site where glacial ice scrapes bedrock (4) at the top of a steep slope in a streambed 11. Four samples of aluminum, A, B, C, and D, have identical volumes and densities, but different shapes. Each piece is dropped into a long tube filled with water. The time each sample takes to settle to the bottom of the tube s shown in the table to the right. Which diagram most likely represents the shape of sample A? Sample A B C D Time to Settle (sec) (1) (2) (3) (4) Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 161

42 12. The diagram below shows cobbles used in the construction of the walls of a cobblestone building. The shape and size of the cobbles suggest that they were collected from (1) the channel of a fast-flowing stream (2) volcanic ash deposits (3) a desert sand dune (4) the base of a cliff 13. The diagrams below represent landscape features found along the seacoast. The arrows show ocean-wave direction. Which shoreline has been shaped more by deposition than by erosion? (1) (2) (3) (4) 14. The surface bedrock of the Tug Hill Plateau landscape region is mostly composed of (1) igneous rock of Silurian age (3) metamorphic rock of Precambrian age (2) sediments of Tertiary age (4) sedimentary rock of Ordovican Age 15. The diagram below shows a sedimentary rock sample. Which agent of erosion was most likely responsible for shaping the particles forming this rock? (1) mass movement (3) glacial ice (2) wind (4) running water 16. The occurrence of parallel scratches on bedrock in a U-shaped valley indicates that the area has most likely been eroded by (1) a glacier (2) waves (3) a stream (4) wind 17. The satellite photograph below shows a geologic feature composed of silt, sand, and clay. The geologic feature shown in the photograph was primarily deposited by which agent of erosion? (1) glaciers (3) wave action (2) wind (4) running water 162 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

43 18. In which landscape region is Ithaca, New York located? (1) Allegheny Plateau (3) The Catskills (2) Adirondacks Highlands (4) St. Lawrence Lowlands 19. Match the agent of erosion that corresponds to the identifying characteristic surface features described below. Agent of Erosion Surface Feature Formed C Glaciers A. Beach, sandbars, barrier islands E Mass movement B. Loss of topsoil, dunes D Running water (streams) C. U-shaped valley, moraines, drumlins A Waves D. V-shaped valley, deltas, meanders B Wind E. Landslides, slumps 20. The two photographs to the right show dates on tombstones found in a cemetery in St. Remy, New York. The tombstones were 5 meters apart and both faced north. Tombstone A had dates cut into the rock in Tombstone B had dates cut into the rock in Which statement best explains why the dates are more difficult to read on tombstone A than on tombstone B? (1) Tombstone A was exposed to less acid rain than tombstone B. (2) Tombstone A has undergone a longer period of weathering than tombstone B. (3) Tombstone A experienced cooler temperatures than tombstone B. (4) Tombstone A is composed of minerals less resistant to weathering than tombstone B. 21. The Adirondacks Mountains landscape region was formed primarily by (1) Changes in the water levels of the Great Lakes (2) Erosion by the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers (3) Mountain building and erosion (4) Wind erosion in an arid climate 22. What does Plattsburgh, New York and Massena, New York have in common? (1) They are located in the same landscape region. (2) They have the same latitude. (3) They have the same longitude. (4) Their surface bedrock formed during the same geologic time period. 23. New York State landscape regions are identified and classified primarily by their (1) surface topography and bedrock structure (2) existing vegetation and type of weather (3) latitude and longitude (4) chemical weathering rate and nearness to large bodies of water Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 163

44 24. Which agent of erosion is mainly responsible for the formation of the depressions occupied by both the kettle lakes and finger lakes found in New York State? (1) wind (2) streams (3) waves (4) glaciers 25. The diagram below shows a section of a meander in a stream. The arrows show the direction of stream flow. The streambank on the outside of this meander is steeper than the streambank on the inside of this meander because the water on the outside of this meander is moving (1) slower, causing deposition (2) faster, causing deposition (3) slower, causing erosion (4) faster, causing erosion 26. The cross section below shows a profile of a sediment deposit. The pattern of sediment size shown indicates that these sediments were most likely deposited within a (1) landslide (2) moraine (3) drumlin (4) delta 27. The map to the right shows a stream drainage pattern. Arrows show the direction of stream flow. On which landscape region did this drainage pattern most likely develop? (1) (2) (3) (4) 28. A stream flowing at a velocity of 75 centimeters per second can transport (1) clay, only (3) pebbles, sand, silt, and clay, only (2) pebbles, only (4) boulders, cobbles, pebbles, sand, silt, and clay 29. What will be the most probable arrangement of rock particles deposited directly by a glacier? (1) sorted and layered (3) sorted and not layered (2) unsorted and layered (4) unsorted and not layered 164 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

45 Base your answers to questions 30 through 32 on the diagram below, which shows a coastal region in which the land slopes toward the ocean. Point X is near the top of the hill, point Y is at the base of the hill, and point Z is a location at sea level. The same type of surface bedrock underlies this entire region. A stream flows from point X through point Y to point Z. This stream is not shown in the diagram. 30. Which diagram best shows the most probable path of the stream flowing from point X to point Z? (1) (2) (3) (4) 31. Compared to the stream velocity between point X and point Y, the stream velocity between point Y and point Z is most likely (1) greater, since the slope of the land decreases (2) greater, since the slope of the land increases (3) less, since the slope of the land decreases (4) less, since the slope of the land increases 32. Which cross section best shows the pattern of sediments deposited by the stream as it enters the ocean near point Z? Weathering, Erosion, Deposition and Landscapes 165

46 33. The map to the right shows barrier islands in the ocean along the coast of Texas. Which agent of erosion most likely formed these barrier islands? (1) mass movement (3) streams (2) wave action (4) glaciers Base your answers to questions 34 through 36 on the data table below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The data table shows the average monthly discharge, in cubic feet per second, for a stream in New York State. Data Table Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Discharge (ft 3 /sec) On the grid to the right, plot with an X the average stream discharge for each month shown in the data table. Connect the Xs with a line. X X X 35. State the relationship between this stream s discharge and the amount of suspended sediment that can be carried by this stream. X X X X X X The greater the stream s X X discharge, the greater the X amount of suspended sediment 36. Explain one possible reason why this stream s discharge in April is usually greater than this stream s discharge in January. Snow melt will cause an increase in the streams discharge 166 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

47 ` Meteorology Meteorology Weather Meteorology - the study of Earth s atmospheric changes - weather Meteorologist - scientist who studies weather Weather - short term condition of the atmosphere - can change very quickly, within days, hours, or minutes Atmosphere - the shell of gasses surrounding Earth - divided into layers based on temperature changes with altitude PART I: Energy in Earth s Systems Internal energy Inside the Earth Causes Radioactive decay Heat left over form the forming of Earth External energy Solar energy from the Sun effected by Position of the sun is in the sky The amount of solar energy absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere How long the sun is above the horizon Insolation Incoming solar radiation Selected Properties of Earth s Atmosphere For the following questions, refer to the Earth Science Reference Tables, page In which sphere is all of the water vapor found? Troposphere 2. What happens to atmospheric pressure as altitude increases? it decreases 3. In which sphere does weather occur? Troposphere 4. What happens to the temperature in each sphere as altitude increases? It... Troposphere Decreases Mesosphere Decreases Stratosphere Increases Thermosphere Increases Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 167

48 Average Chemical Composition of Earth s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere Write the composition of the Troposphere in the table below. Refer to the Earth Science Reference Tables, page 11 Percent Element 21 % Oxygen 78 % Nitrogen 1 % Other 1. The graph to the right shows the average concentration of ozone in Earth s atmosphere over Arizona during 4 months of the year. Which layer of Earth s atmosphere contains the greatest concentration of ozone? (1) troposphere (3) mesosphere (2) stratosphere (4) thermosphere 2. An air temperature of 95ºC most often exists in which layer of the atmosphere? (1) troposphere (3) mesosphere (2) stratosphere (4) thermosphere 3. The greatest atmospheric pressure occurs in the (1) troposphere (2) mesosphere (3) stratosphere (4) thermosphere 4. As the elevation above sea level in Earth s atmosphere increases, the measured atmospheric pressure will (1) decrease (2) increase (3) remain the same 5. Which part of the atmosphere has the smallest distance from the bottom to the top of its zone? (1) troposphere (2) mesosphere (3) stratosphere (4) thermosphere 6. Nearly all the water vapor in the atmosphere is found within the (1) mesosphere (2) troposphere (3) thermosphere (4) stratosphere 7. Which statement most accurately describes Earth s atmosphere? (1) The atmosphere is layered, with each layer possessing distinct characteristics. (2) The atmosphere is a shell of gasses surrounding most of Earth. (3) The atmosphere s altitude is less than the depth of the ocean. (4) The atmosphere is more dense than the lithosphere. 168 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

49 8. Ozone is concentrated in Earth s atmosphere at an altitude of 20 to 35 kilometers. Which atmospheric layer contains the greatest concentration of ozone? (1) mesosphere (2) troposphere (3) thermosphere (4) stratosphere 9. What is the approximate temperature of the mesosphere at an elevation of 68 kilometers above sea level? (1) 0 C (2) -55 C (3) 42 C (4) -90 C 10. What is the approximate altitude of the mesopause in the atmosphere? (1) 50 km (2) 82 km (3) 66 km (4) 90 km 11. The temperature in the stratosphere ranges from (1) -55 F to 0 F (2) 10 F to 35 F (3) -55 C to 0 C (4) 10 C to 35 C 12. Base your answers on the diagram to the right which shows part of the orbit of a satellite around Earth. The distance from the satellite s orbit to Earth s surface is 75 kilometers. Which portion of Earth s atmosphere is the satellite located? (1) troposphere (3) mesosphere (2) stratosphere (4) thermosphere 13. What is the most abundant element in the troposphere? (1) helium (2) hydrogen (3) nitrogen 14. Which element in the hydrosphere is most abundant by volume? (1) oxygen (2) nitrogen (3) helium (4) oxygen (4) hydrogen 15. The graph to the right shows the percent by mass of the elements of Earth s crust. Each letter on the graph represents an element. Which elements are represented by the letters a and b, respectively? (1) (2) (3) (4) aluminumm and iron calcium and nitrogenn potassium and sodium oxygen and silicon 16. Earth s troposphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere contain relatively large amounts of which element? (1) iron (2) hydrogen (3) oxygen (4) potassium Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 169

50 How energy reaches Earth Radiation - energy transfer in the form of electromagnetic waves - can travel through empty space (vacuum) - Most of the Sun s energy that reaches Earth s surface is in the visible light range on the Electromagnetic spectrum Electromagnetic spectrum - the classification of radiation based on wavelength, frequency, and amplitude Earth Science Reference Tables, page Heat waves Infrared and microwave radiation 2. Lead protects you from these at the dentist x-rays 3. Skin cancer is a result of too much exposure to Ultraviolet (UV) radiation 4. Music is sent along these waves Radio waves 5. Nuclear bombs deadly rays Gamma and X-rays 6. Most of the waves sent by the sun are in the Visible light range. 7. Fill in the following chart with the name of the region in which the electromagnetic waves fall. Wavelength Type of Radiation Wavelength Color 10-7 x-rays 6.5 x 10-5 Red 0.000,000,000,1 Gamma rays 5.1 x 10-5 Green 10 3 Radio waves 6.0 x 10-5 Orange 10-5 Ultraviolet 4.1 x 10-5 Violet 0.01 Infrared 5.6 x 10-5 Yellow 100 Radio waves 4.5 x 10-5 Blue 1. Which form of electromagnetic radiation has a wavelength of 1.0x 10 3 centimeter? (1) ultraviolet (2) radio waves (3) infrared (4) microwaves 2. Scientists are concerned about the decrease in ozone in the upper atmosphere primarily because ozone protects life on Earth by absorbing certain wavelengths of (1) x-ray radiation (3) ultraviolet radiation (2) infrared radiation (4) microwave radiation 170 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

51 3. Which part of the Sun s electromagnetic spectrum has the longest wavelength? (1) radio wave radiation (3) infrared radiation (2) visible light radiation (4) x-ray radiation 4. The diagram below shows the types of electromagnetic energy given off by the Sun. The shaded part of the diagram shows the approximate amount of each type actually reaching Earth s surface. Which conclusion is best supported by the diagram? (1) All types of electromagnetic energy reach Earth s surface. (2) Gamma rays and x rays make up the greatest amount of electromagnetic energy reaching Earth s surface. (3) Visible light makes up the greatest amount of electromagnetic energy reaching Earth s surface. (4) Ultraviolet and infrared radiation make up the greatest amount of electromagnetic energy reaching Earth s surface. 5. What is the basic difference between ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation? (1) half-life (2) wavelength (3) temperature (4) wave velocity 6. Radiation with the wavelength 5.0 x 10 5 centimeters is usually visible as what color? ( 1) violet (2) green (3) blue (4) yellow Angle of Insolation - the altitude of the sun over the horizon, measured in degrees - highest altitude is 90 (directly overhead) Light is most concentrated, heat is most concentrated, warmer temperatures Light is most spread out (less concentrated, less heat cooler temperatures Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 171

52 Angle of insolation changes depending on three things: 1) Time of day Sunrise - Sun is lowest in the sky cooler temperatures Solar noon - Sun is highest in the sky warmer temperatures Sunset - Sun is low in the sky cooler temperatures 2) Latitude - the lower the latitude the higher the Angle of insolation - equator = 0 latitude, altitude of sun is high all year, warm temperatures - poles = 90 (N and S), altitude of sun Is low all year, colder temperatures 3) Season In the northern hemisphere: - Sun is highest in the sky in June - warmer temperatures - summer - Sun is lowest in the sky in December - cooler temperatures - winter 172 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

53 Duration of Insolation - the length of time the sun is over the horizon Depends on Latitude and Time of year At the equator (0 ) 12 hour days all year long no seasons As the latitude increases... summer Longer days warmer temperatures winter Shorter days cooler temperatures 1. Which graph best represents the relationship between the angle of insolation and the intensity of insolation? Intensity of Insolation Intensity of Insolation Intensity of Insolation Intensity of Insolation 0 90 Angle of Insolation 0 90 Angle of Insolation 0 90 Angle of Insolation 0 90 Angle of Insolation (1) (2) (3) (4) 2. The graph to the right shows air temperatures on a clear summer day from 7 a.m. to 12 noon at two locations, one in Florida and one in New York State. Air temperature rose slightly faster in Florida than in New York State because Florida (1) has a lower angle of insolation (2) has a higher angle of insolation (3) is closer to the Prime Meridian (4) is farther from the Prime Meridian 3. The average temperature at Earth s North Pole is colder than the average temperature at the Equator because the Equator (1) receives less ultraviolet radiation (3) receives more intense insolation (2) has more cloud cover (4) has a thicker atmosphere Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 173

54 Atmospheric Transparency 100 % Incoming Solar Radiation 24 % Reflected by clouds and dust particles in the atmosphere 25 % Absorbed by clouds and dust particles in the atmosphere 8 % Reflected by Earth s Surface 43 % Absorbed by Earth s Surface Earth s Surface Reflection / Refraction / Absorption of insolation Light vs. Dark SNOW Dark surfaces Light surfaces - Absorbs greatest amount of heat - reflects the greatest amount - radiates the greatest amount of heat - radiates the least 174 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

55 Rough vs. Smooth Rough surfaces Smooth surfaces - more surface area to absorb more - less surface area does not absorb as much Land vs. Water - land heats up faster than water because water has a higher specific heat - land cools down faster than water, because water has a higher specific heat * in the winter the lake may not freeze, in the spring part of the lake may still be frozen even though the temperatures are warm Specific Heat: The amount of heat (calories) needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance one degree Celsius ESRT page 1 The higher the specific heat, the more heat energy it requires to raise the temperature of the material - The lower the specific heat the faster it heats up (a) Which material on the specific heat chart heats up the fastest? lead (b) Which material on the specific heat chart heats up the slowest? Liquid water (c) Which material needs the most amount of energy to raise its temperature? Liquid water (d) In each set below, circle the material that would heat up the fastest: Water Iron Copper Dry air Lead Granite Ice Basalt Granite Iron Basalt Water vapor Lead Water Iron Ice Copper Dry air (e) Compare the heating and cooling rate of land and water, using the term specific heat to explain your comparison. land heats up and cools down faster than water because water has a higher specific heat Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 175

56 A good absorber of electromagnetic energy is a good radiator of electromagnetic energy. If a material heat up quickly, it will also cool down quickly 1. The graph to the right shows atmospheric temperature variations on Earth between 1956 and The dates of three major volcanic eruptions are indicated. What is the most probable reason that Earth s atmospheric temperature decreased shortly after each major volcanic eruption? (1) Water droplets produced by the eruptions absorbed terrestrial reradiation. (2) Ozone produced by the eruptions absorbed ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. (3) Volcanic dust from the eruptions blocked insolation. (4) Carbon dioxide gas from the eruptions blocked terrestrial reradiation. 2. Which of the following Earth surfaces usually reflects the most incoming solar radiation? (1) snow cover (2) dark soil (3) green grass (4) lake water 3. The diagram to the right shows a light source that has been heating two metal containers of air for 10 minutes. Both cups are made of the same material and are equal distances from the light source. Compared to the amount of energy reflected by the shiny cup during the 10 minutes of heating, the amount of energy reflected by the black cup is (1) less (2) greater (3) the same 4. Which type of land surface would probably reflect the most incoming solar radiation? (1) light colored and smooth (3) light colored and rough (2) dark colored and smooth (4) dark colored and rough 5. A person in New York State worked outdoors in sunlight for several hours on a day in July. Whichh type of clothing should the person have worn to absorb the least electromagnetic radiation? (1) dark colored with a rough surface (3) dark colored with a smooth surface (2) light colored with a rough surface (4) light colored with a smooth surface 176 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

57 Terrestrial Radiation Terrestrial Radiation Infrared Radiation from Earth s surface - long wave radiation emitted from Earth s surface and other terrestrial objects 9 % Lost outside Earth s atmosphere 91 % absorbed by gasses within the atmosphere Radiation given off by Earth s surface Greenhouse effect: - occurs as long wave radiation (infrared) is trapped within Earth s Atmosphere - greenhouse gasses, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor absorb the long wave radiation - traps in heat which causes Earth s surface temperatures to increase 1. Short waves of electromagnetic energy are absorbed by Earth s surface during the day. They are later reradiated into space as (1) visible light rays (2) infrared rays (3) X-rays (4) ultraviolet rays 2. What is the most likely reason for a decrease in air temperature observed between 12 midnight and 6 a.m. in New York State? (1) Air pressure was decreasing (3) Cloud cover was increasing (2) Earth was radiating heat. (4) Plants were giving off water vapor Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 177

58 3. In which region of the electromagnetic spectrum is most of the outgoing radiation from Earth? (1) infrared (2) ultraviolet (3) visible (4) X-ray 4. Which component of Earth s atmosphere is classified as a greenhouse gas? (1) oxygen (2) carbon dioxide (3) helium (4) hydrogen 5. Which two gases in Earth s atmosphere are believed by scientists to be greenhouse gases that are major contributors to global warming? (1) carbon dioxide and methane (3) oxygen and nitrogen (2) hydrogen and helium (4) ozone and chlorine 6. An increase in which gas would cause the most greenhouse warming of Earth s atmosphere? (1) nitrogen (2) carbon dioxide (3) oxygen (4) hydrogen 7. A gradual increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide would warm Earth s atmosphere because carbon dioxide is a (1) poor reflector of ultraviolet radiation (3) good reflector of ultraviolet radiation (2) poor absorber of infrared radiation (4) good absorber of infrared radiation 8. Which method of energy transfer is primarily responsible for energy being lost from Earth into space? (1) conduction (2) solidification (3) convection (4) radiation 9. Earth s atmosphere is warmed when (1) ultraviolet radiation emitted by Earth is absorbed by nitrogen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (2) x-ray radiation emitted by Earth is absorbed by nitrogen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (3) infrared radiation emitted by Earth is absorbed by carbon dioxide and water vapor in the atmosphere (4) gamma radiation emitted by Earth is absorbed by carbon dioxide and water vapor in the atmosphere Conduction - Transfer of energy from molecule to molecule - most effective in solids, but can occur in gasses or liquids Example: - a metal bar 178 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

59 Convection Warm air rises - energy transfer caused by the differences in density - occurs in fluids (liquid or gasses) - most dominant heat transfer in Earth s atmosphere - warm air rises, cold air sinks Cold air sinks 1. The cross section to the right shows two compartments of water of equal volume insulated by Styrofoam and separated by a metal dividing wall, forming a closed energy system. When the temperature of the water in compartment A decreases by 10 C, the temperature of the water in compartment B will (1) remain unchanged (2) decrease by only 5 C (3) decrease by approximately 10 C (4) increase by approximately 10 C 2. During which process does heat transfer occur because of density differences? (1) conduction (2) radiation (3) convection (4) reflection 3. What is the primary method of heat transfer through solid rock during contact metamorphism? (1) advection (2) absorption (3) convection (4) conduction 4. The diagram to the right shows a portion of Earth s interior. Point A is a location on the interface between layers. The arrows shown in the asthenosphere represent the inferred slow circulation of the plastic mantle by a process called (1) insolation (3) conduction (2) convection (4) radiation Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 179

60 Section Review Base your answers to questions 1 through 3 on the cross section below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The cross section shows the general movement of air within a portion of Earth s atmosphere located between 30 N and 30 S latitude. Numbers 1 and 2 represent different locations in the atmosphere. 1. Which temperature zone layer of Earth s atmosphere is shown in the cross section? (1) troposphere (3) mesosphere (2) stratosphere (4) thermosphere 2. The air movement shown in the cross section is due to the process of (1) condensation (3) evaporation (2) conduction (4) convection 3. What is the approximate percentage by volume of oxygen present in Earth s atmosphere at location 2? (1) 10% (2) 33% (3) 21% (4) 46% 4. The diagram to the right shows a greenhouse. What is the primary function of the clear glass of the greenhouse? (1) The glass reduces the amount of insolation entering the greenhouse. (2) The glass allows all wavelengths of radiation to enter and all wavelengths of radiation to escape. (3) The glass allows short wavelengths of radiation to enter, but reduces the amount of long wavelength radiation that escapes. (4) The glass allows long wavelengths of radiation to enter, but reduces the amount of short wavelength radiation that escapes. 5. One reason Massena, New York, has a colder climate than Binghamton, New York, is that Massena (1) absorbs more rays of incoming solar radiation (2) is usually closer to the source of solar radiation (3) receives shorter wavelengths from the source of solar radiation (4) receives lower angle rays of incoming solar radiation 180 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

61 Base your answers to questions 6 through 10 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram represents four stations, A, B, C, and D, in a laboratory investigation in which equal volumes of sand at the same starting temperature were heated by identical light sources. The light sources were the same distance from each station, but at different angles to the surfaces. Two thermometers were used at each station, one just above the surface and the other just below the surface. The lights were turned on for 30 minutes and then removed for the next 30 minutes. Temperatures were recorded each minute for the 60 minutes. 6. Most of the energy from the light sources was transferred to the sand by the process of (1) conduction (2) transpiration (3) convection (4) radiation 7. Which type of sand surface would most likely absorb the most radiation? (1) dark colored smooth surface (3) dark colored rough surface (2) light colored smooth surface (4) light colored rough surface 8. Which station received the least intense light energy? (1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D 9. After the light sources were removed, the electromagnetic energy radiated by the cooling sand was mostly (1) infrared rays (2) visible light rays (3) ultraviolet rays (4) gamma rays 10. Which graph best represents the temperatures that would be shown by thermometers 1 and 2 at station A? (1) (2) (3) (4) Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 181

62 11. Which type of surface absorbs the greatest amount of electromagnetic energy from the Sun? (1) smooth, shiny, and dark in color (3) rough, dull, and dark in color (2) smooth, shiny, and light in color (4) rough, dull, and light in color 12. Electromagnetic energy that is being given off by the surface of Earth is called (1) convection (3) insolation (2) specific heat (4) terrestrial radiation 13. What is the usual cause of the drop in temperature that occurs between sunset and sunrise at most New York State locations. (1) strong winds (3) cloud formation (2) ground radiation (4) heavy precipitation 14. As the ability of a substance to absorb electromagnetic energy increases, the ability of that substance to radiate electromagnetic energy will (1) decrease (2) increase (3) remain the same 15. At an altitude of 95 miles above Earth s surface, nearly 100% of the incoming energy from the Sun can be detected. At 55 miles above Earth s surface, most incoming x-ray radiation and some incoming ultraviolet radiation can no longer be detected. This missing radiation was most likely (1) absorbed in the thermosphere (3) absorbed in the mesosphere (2) reflected by the stratosphere (4) reflected by the troposphere 16. The graph below represents the average yearly concentration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in Earth s atmosphere from 1972 to CO2 Concentration (parts per million) This change in CO 2 concentration most likely caused (1) a decrease in the average wavelength of solar radiation (2) a decrease in the thickness of Earth s atmosphere (3) an increase in the absorption of long-wave heat radiation by Earth s atmosphere (4) an increase in the thickness of Earth s glaciers Year 182 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

63 PART II: Weather Variables 1. Temperature - the measure of the average kinetic energy - how fast the molecules move Instrument used to measure temperature: Measured in.... F Fahrenheit C Celsius K Kelvin Shown on a weather map with isotherms - Lines that connect places of equal temperature Convert the temperatures below by using the conversion chart in the Earth Science Reference Tables, page. 13 Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin Find the following temperatures: Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin Water boils Water freezes Body temperature Room temperature Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 183

64 2. Air pressure - the weight of Earth s atmosphere - changes depending on the temperature Instrument used to measure pressure: barometer Measured in.... inches and milibars Shown on a weather map with Isobars - Lines that connect places of equal barometric pressure Mercury barometer: As the air pressure pushes on the surface of the mercury in The dish, the mercury travels up the tube. As pressure increases, the mercury rises up higher in the tube - cold air sinks causes higher pressure When pressure decreases, the mercury sinks out of the tube - warm air rises causes lower pressure Using the Pressure Conversion Chart in the Earth Science Reference Tables page 13, complete the tables below. Inches Millibars Millibars Inches Normal pressure at sea level is 1 atmosphere and is equal to millibars and inches 184 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

65 State the relationship between altitude and air pressure. As altitude increases, pressure decreases Draw the relationship on the graph to the right. pressure 3. Relative Humidity a ratio between the amount of moisture is in the atmosphere and how much moisture the atmosphere can hold altitude measured in % When the air is holding as much water vapor as it can, the air is saturated When the air is saturated, the relative humidity is 100 % Temperature & Relative Humidity - the warmer the temperature is the more moisture it can hold State the relationship between temperature and relative humidity. As temperature increases, relative humidity decreases Draw the relationship on the graph to the right. Relative humidity Instruments used to determine relative humidity: Hygrometer Sling psychrometer temperature Handle Thermometers Wet sock Dew point Temperature The temperature in which the air is saturated - 100% relative humidity Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 185

66 Determining Relative Humidity and Dew point Temperatures Dry bulb Wet bulb air temperature temperature an air parcel cooled by evaporation of water (wet cloth) When given the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures, you can determine the dew point temperature and relative humidity by following the directions below. Use the Dew point Temperature and Relative Humidity charts in the Earth Science Reference Tables on page. 12 Example 1: If the dry bulb temperature is 20 C and the wet bulb is 15 C, find the dew point temperature and the relative humidity. Dew point: Determine the difference between dry bulb and wet bulb. Dry bulb 20 Wet bulb - 15 Difference 5 Using the Dew point Temperature chart, find the dry bulb temperature on the dew point chart (left side) and the difference between the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures (top). - Match these places within the chart. What is the Dew point Temperature? 12 C Relative Humidity: Same as dew point, except use the Relative Humidity chart. Find the dry bulb temperature on the relative humidity chart (left side) and the difference between the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures (top). - Match these places within the chart. What is the Relative Humidity? 58 % Example 2: Find the relative humidity and dew point temperature when the dry bulb temperature is 14 C and the wet bulb temperature is 9 C. Dry bulb 14 What is the Dew point Temperature? 4 C Wet bulb - 9 Difference 5 What is the Relative Humidity? 50 % 186 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

67 Fill in the following table: Be careful! Make sure you are using the correct chart. Dry bulb temperature ( C) Wet bulb Temperature ( C) Difference between wet/dry bulb Dew point temperature ( C) Relative humidity (%) What is the dew point temperature if the dry bulb is 24 C and the wet bulb is 22 C? 21 C 2. What is the relative humidity if the dry bulb is 20 C and the wet bulb depression (difference between wet and dry bulb) is 6? 51 % 3. What is the relative humidity if the dew point temperature is 6 C and the wet bulb depression is 1? 87 % 4. What is the dew point temperature if the wet bulb depression is 6 and the relative humidity is 61%? 21 C 5. A student used a sling psychrometer to measure the humidity of the air. If the relative humidity was 65% and the dry-bulb temperature was 10 C, what was the wet-bulb temperature? (1) 5 C (2) 7 C (3) 3 C (4) 10 C Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 187

68 Condensation Change of phase from water vapor to liquid water Examples: Water on cold glass of water Water on a mirror after a shower Dew on the grass Fog, Clouds Three things needed for Condensation to occur: (1) water vapor must be present (2) air must be saturated (relative humidity 100%) (3) condensation nuclei - ex dust particles Density of Air: - warm air rises because it is less dense - cold air sinks because it is more dense Formation of Clouds: - warm moist air rises - air expands and cools to the dew point - air becomes saturated - water droplets form on dust particles - clouds consist of water droplets and ice crystals Adiabatic cooling the cooling of a parcel of air as it rises through the atmosphere - dry adiabatic lapse rate - dry air cools faster - wet adiabatic lapse rate - moist air cools slower Precipitation cloud particles too heavy to remain suspended in the air fall to Earth Examples - include rain, hail, sleet, snow, freezing rain What does precipitation do for the environment? Cleans the atmosphere 188 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

69 Wind: - the horizontal movement of air Anemometer Wind Vane - caused by the uneven heating of Earth s surface - differences in air temperature cause differences in air pressure - the greater the difference in air pressure the faster the wind - named by the direction in which they come from W N S E - North wind comes from the north measures determines - isobars connect places of equal barometric wind speed wind pressure on a weather map direction Sea Breeze H Water heats up slower than land - high specific heat - cooler temperatures - air sinks * HIGH pressure wind L Land heats up faster than water - low specific heat - warmer temperatures - air rises * LOW pressure Land Breeze Water cools down slower than land (stays warmer) - high specific heat - warmer temperatures at night - air rises L wind H Land cools down faster than water - low specific heat - cooler temperatures at night - air sinks Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 189

70 Coriolis Effect The deflection of winds and ocean currents caused by the rotation of Earth Deflection is to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere Weather Factors Associated with Different Pressure Areas High Pressure Cool / cold air Air sinks / goes down Air moves outward Clockwise Wind blows Low Pressure Air rises Air moves inward Warm air Counter Clockwise H L No clouds No precipitation Clouds Precipitation likely Planetary winds: ESRT pg 14 Dry / High pressure Fill in the diagram to the right. - Draw the wind arrows illustrating the direction and deflection. - Label the areas that would be wet or dry. - Label the areas that would be high pressure or low pressure. Wet / Low pressure Dry / High pressure Wet / Low pressure Dry / High pressure Wet / Low pressure Dry / High pressure 190 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

71 Weather changes: State the relationship for each of the following variables. Draw the graph of the relationship remember to label the graph. Then explain why! As temperature increases, air pressure decreases Reason: Warm air rises because it is less dense. The warmer the air, the less the pressure Air pressure Temperature As temperature increases, relative humidity deacreases Reason: Warm air can hold more water vapor. Since the capacity increased, the relative humidity decreases. Relative humidity Temperature As temperature increases, density decreases Reason: Warm air rises because it is less dense the cold air Density Temperature As altitude increases, water vapor content decreases Reason: Look at page 14 of the Earth Science Reference Tables - the water vapor concentration Water vapor Altitude As altitude increases in the troposphere, temperature Reason: ESRT pg 14 Temperature chart decreases Troposphere Temperatire Altitude As altitude increases, pressure decreases Pressure Reason: ESRT pg 14 Pressure chart Altitude Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 191

72 Air Masses Large region of the atmosphere with uniform temperature and humidity ESRT pg 13 Symbol Written form Type of weather cp Continental Polar Dry & Cold ct Continental Tropical Dry & Warm mp Maritime Polar Wet & Cold mt Maritime Tropical Wet & Warm ca Continental Arctic Dry & Very Cold In the map below, write the correct abbreviation (cp, ct, mp, mt) in the corresponding location, to show the characteristics of an air mass that originated there cp mp cp mp mt ct mt 192 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

73 Fronts - the boundary between two air masses Earth Science Reference Tables page 13 COLD FRONT: Weather Map Symbols Cold air Warm air Cold air - cold air pushes the warm, moist air upward - cold air is located behind the front - the greater the difference in temperatures, the more likely there will be a major storm - usually pass quickly - brings colder but clear weather conditions Warm air WARM FRONT Weather Map Symbols Warm air Cold air Warm air Cold air - warm air gently rolls over the colder air - warm air is located behind the front - conditions are usually cloudy and rainy for several several hours - usually pass slowly - brings warmer but rainy weather conditions Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 193

74 OCCLUDED FRONT Warm air Weather Map Symbols Cold air Cool air Cold air Cool air - occurs when a cold air mass overtakes a warm mass and overtakes another cold air mass - precipitation is possible but not definite - very slight temperature change STATIONARY FRONT - notice no arrows to show direction in the weather map symbols Weather Map Symbols - stationary means the front is not moving - final direction of movement is difficult to predict Cold air Warm air - winds are blowing in opposite directions on each side of the front - clouds can last for days - Fronts are usually associated with... - clouds - precipitation - change in temperature - change in wind direction 194 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

75 Station Models On a station model, barometric pressure is ALWAYS written in a three - digit format. Converting from millibars: Drop wither the 9 or the 10 in the front of the number and loose the decimal point. Millibars / Station Model Millibars / Station Model Millibars / Station Model mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = mb = 000 Converting from the station model format to millibars: If the first number on the station model is 0 4, place a 10 in front of the number. If the first number on the station model is 5 9, place a 9 in front of the number. Place a decimal point between the last 2 numbers. Station Model / Millibars Station Model / Millibars Station Model / Millibars 146 = mb 015 = mb 080 = mb 457 = mb 623 = mb 978 = mb 986 = mb 800 = mb 899 = mb 514 = mb 200 = mb 402 = mb 002 = mb 424 = mb 901 = mb 285 = mb 913 = mb 802 = mb 778 = mb 708 = mb 321 = mb 502 = mb 399 = mb 116 = mb 385 = mb 010 = mb 698 = mb Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 195

76 Weather stations: Inside the circle the amount of cloud cover Top right - barometric pressure (shorthand) Middle right - barometric tendency (rising/falling) Bottom right - precipitation (past 6 hours) Top left - temperature ( F) Middle left - present weather & visibility Bottom left - dew point temperature ( F) Wind line - direction (where wind is coming from) Feathers - speed (long=10 knots/short 5 knots) 50% Rising.25 in 28 F ½ mile snow 27 F SW 25 knots 28 ½ * /.25 Draw a weather station using the following information: Completely cloudy Top right pressure = barometric tendency = falling precipitation = 3 inches temperature 25 F present weather (snowing) and visibility (.25 miles) dew point temperature 23 F Wind = Northeast Wind speed 25 knots 25 ¼ * NEED TO KNOW: Dew Point Temperature & Air Temperature The closer the air temperature is to the dew point temperature, the greater the chance for precipitation. 196 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

77 Determine each of the values below by looking at the diagram at the top of each column ¼ * -17\ / \ Wind Direction North Northwest Southwest Wind Speed 30 knots 25 knots 15 knots Cloud cover 100 % 50 % 100 % Air pressure mb mb mb Barometric tendency Falling Rising Falling Precipitation 3.2 inches 00 inches.02 inches Temperature 26 F 40 F 70 F Dew Point 22 F 15 F 68 F Present weather Snow Clear Rain Visibility ¼ mile 3 miles 1 mile Determine each of the values below by looking at the diagram at the top of each column ¾ -05\ / /8 = -20\ 67.5 Wind Direction Northeast Southeast Northwest Wind Speed 20 knots 15 knots 5 knots Cloud cover 75% 25% 100 % Air pressure mb mb mb Barometric tendency Falling Rising Falling Precipitation.2 inches 0 inches.5 inches Temperature 50 F 85 F 67 F Dew Point 45 F 62 F 67 F Present weather Drizzle Clear Fog Visibility ¾ mile Clear 1/8 mile Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 197

78 Draw a station model for each description below. Remember to draw the wind direction and speed first. Completely cloudy pressure = mb barometric tendency = falling.1 mb precipitation = 3 inches temperature 45 present weather (drizzling) visibility (.5 miles) dew point 42 Wind = Northwest Wind speed 15 knots 3/4 cloudy pressure = mb barometric tendency = falling.2 mb precipitation =.75 inches temperature 38 present weather (sleet) visibility (.5 miles) dew point 34 Wind = southeast Wind speed 20 knots 38 ½ \ ½ \ % cloudy pressure = mb barometric tendency = falling.1 mb precipitation =.25 inches temperature 55 present weather (fog) visibility (.125 miles) dew point 55 Wind = Southwest Wind speed 10 knots \ No clouds pressure = mb barometric tendency = rising.2 mb precipitation = 0 inches temperature 78 present weather (clear) visibility (full) dew point 47 Wind = Northeast Wind speed 25 knots 55 1/8 = \ / 198 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

79 Weather Map Practice 1. The map provided below shows six source regions for different air masses that affect the weather of North America. The directions of movement of the air masses are shown. Using the standard two-letter air-mass symbols from the Earth Science Reference Tables, label the air masses by writing the correct symbol in each circle on the map. mp mp cp mt ct mt 2. Using the station model below, draw and label the following information. Cloud cover has been left out. Using the information determine what the coverage would be and shade in the station model. Wind direction Northeast Wind speed 20 knots Present weather Hail Visibility ¼ mile Temperature 52 F Dew point 52 F Cloud cover? 100% 52 ¼ 52 Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 199

80 Base your answers to questions 3 12 on the weather map below. The map shows a low pressure system and some atmospheric conditions at weather stations A, B, and C. 3. What is the symbol for the warm and moist air mass? mt 4. What is the symbol for the cold and dry air mass cp 5. Where did the warm air mass originate? South (low latitudes) 6. Where did the cold air mass originate? North (high latitudes) 7. Which weather station (A, B, or C) has 100% relative humidity? B 8. Which weather station (A, B, or C) will show colder temperatures within the next couple days? A 9. In what direction is the wind blowing toward in weather station C? Southeast 10. List three things that indicate that this is a low pressure area on the map above. The letter L Counter clockwise movement of winds Barometric pressure decreases as you go toward the middle 11. Which cross sections below best represents the air masses, air movement, clouds and precipitation occurring behind and ahead of the warm front located between stations A and B? 200 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

81 12. The arrows on which map best represent the direction of surface winds associated with this low-pressure system? Base your answers to questions 13 through 23 on the map below, which shows sea-level air pressure, in millibars, for a portion of the eastern coast of North America. Points A, B, C, and D are sea-level locations on Earth s surface. 13. What weather instrument was used to measure the air pressures? barometer 14. Which location (A, B, C, or D) recorded the highest wind speed? B 15. Which location (A, B, C, or D) is in the center of a high pressure area? A 16. Which location (A, B, C, or D) is in the center of a low pressure area? C 17. What is the approximate air pressure of location D? 1010 mb 18. Between points A and B, which direction is the wind blowing? Towards B 19. Which location (A or C) is the wind blowing counter clockwise? C 20. At which location (A or C) is the wind blowing in a clockwise direction? A 21. In which direction do the prevailing winds carry our weather systems across the United States? NE 22. At which location (A, B, C, or D) is the air rising? C 23. At which location (A, B, C, or D) is the air sinking? A Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 201

82 24. Draw the 1024 and 1028 isobar on the map below. 25. Draw the 30, 40,50 and 60 isotherm on the map below. 202 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

83 26. Using the station model below, fill in the following information: Wind direction Wind speed Present weather Visibility Temperature 43 F Dew point 40 F Cloud cover 75% Southwest 15 knots Smog.75 mile Pressure Precipitation.06 inches 27. Fill in the following chart with the terms to the left of the chart: High Pressure Low Pressure Draw an arrow on the line provided to illustrate which way the wind is blowing. H Wind blows L Air rises / sinks Rises Sinks Air moves outward / inward Outward Inward Air is cool / warm Cool Warm Clockwise / Counter clockwise Clockwise Counter clockwise Clouds / No clouds No clouds Clouds Precipitation / No precipitation No precipitation Precipitation 28. How do clouds form? Warm, moist air rises, expands and cools Air becomes saturated Water droplets form on dust particles in the air 29. What is indicated when the dew point temperature and air temperature are close? There is a good chance of precipitation 30. What is the relative humidity when there is fog? 100 % 31. What usually happens when a front passes through an area? There is a change in temperature, change in wind direction and precipitation is likely. Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 203

84 More Regents Questions: Base your answers to questions 1 through 8 on the weather map below showing part of the United States. 1. Name the type of air mass that is located over Binghamton, New York mt 2. Name the type of air mass that is located over Chicago, Illinois. cp 3. What is the present weather in St. Louis? Clear, cool, dry 4. What is the relative humidity at Watertown? 100 % Explain how you determined this. The air temperature and dew point temperature are the same. 5. The arrows on which map best represent the direction of surface winds associated with the high-pressure and low-pressure systems? 204 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

85 6. Which map best represents the correct location of the 1004-mb, 1008-mb, and 1012-mb isobars? 7. If the fronts continue on their current paths, name two cities that will be experience colder temperatures? Washington and Richmond 8. The arrows in the cross sections below represent the general direction of air movement. Which cross section along a straight line between Cincinnati and Boston best represents the weather fronts, clouds, precipitation, and general direction of air movement shown in the map? Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 205

86 Base your answers to questions 9 through 14 on the weather to the right, which shows partial weatherstation data for several cities in eastern North America. 9. Draw isotherms every 10 F, starting with 40 F and ending with 70 F. Isotherms must extend to the edges of the map. 10. Calculate the temperature gradient between Richmond, Virginia, and Hatteras, North Carolina, by following the directions below. a. Write the equation for gradient. gradient = change in field distance b Substitute data from the map into the equation. gradient = 60 F 50 F 200 miles c Calculate the average gradient and label your answer with the correct units. gradient =.05 F/mi 11. State the actual air pressure, in millibars, shown at Miami, Florida mb 12. Is Cincinnati in a low pressure area or a high pressure area? Low pressure 13. State two pieces of evidence that supports your answer above. - It has the lowest labeled pressure (1001.7) on the map - Two other cities along with Cincinnati show the wind going counter clockwise and toward the center 14. State the general relationship between air temperature and latitude for locations shown on the map. [Hint: air temperature changes because of latitude.] Draw the relationship on the graph to the right. Remember to label it. 206 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar Temperature latitude

87 Base your answers to questions 15 and 16 on the weather map below, which shows the position of a low pressure system. The L is the center of the low. The shaded portion represents an area of precipitation. A weather station model for Albany, New York, is shown on the map. 15. What type of front extends eastward from the low-pressure center? Occluded front 16. Complete the weather data table for Albany, New York, based on the station model shown on the map. Relative humidity (%) 100 % Wind direction from NW Wind speed (knots) 25 Present weather Rain 17. What is the approximate dew point temperature if the dry-bulb temperature is 26 C and the wet-bulb temperature is 21 C? 18 C 18. What is the approximate dew point temperature if the dry-bulb temperature is 24 C and the wet-bulb temperature is 18 C? 14 C 19. The dry-bulb temperature of a sample of air is 18 C and its dew point temperature is 4 C. What is the approximate relative humidity? 40 % 20. Which weather instrument has most improved the accuracy of weather forecasts over the past 40 years? (1) thermometer (3) sling psychrometer (2) weather balloon (4) weather satellite 21. Which form of electromagnetic radiation has a wavelength of 10-9 meter? (1) gamma rays (2) infrared (3) ultraviolet (4) radio waves 22. Why are the beaches that are located on the southern shore of Long Island often considerably cooler than nearby inland locations on hot summer afternoons? (1) A land breeze develops due to the lower specific heat of water and the higher specific heat of land. (2) A sea breeze develops due to the higher specific heat of water and the lower specific heat of land. (3) The beaches are closer to the Equator than the inland locations are. (4) The beaches are farther from the Equator than the inland locations are. Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 207

88 STORMS: American Red Cross: (disaster safety link) NOAA - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: Thunderstorms - Occurs when warm moist air near the surface rises, expands and cools, yet is still warmer than the surrounding air, causing it to rise even faster. - Negative and positive charges seem to separate into different clouds, causing lighting to occur between them - Can occur any time of the year, but most common in humid summers Dangers: - lightening, strong wind, hail, possible flooding Preparedness: - Listen to NOAA Weather Radio, commercial radio, or television for the latest weather forecasts. - stay indoors - avoid using telephone or electrical appliances - close blinds and shades over windows just in case flying debris crashes into the window If caught - find shelter in a building or car - in the woods, take shelter under the shortest trees - boating or swimming get to land immediately 208 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

89 Hurricanes - most occur in late summer, early autumn - form as solar energy further warms the tropical ocean surface and evaporation is increased. - water vapor and energy are added to the atmosphere - it begins as a tropical depression (low pressure area) - if the winds are sustained above 39 mph it is labeled a tropical storm - further increased winds to over 74 mph sustained, becomes a hurricane Dangers: - most destructive storms - high winds, storm surges (ocean water pushed onto the coast line), flooding, - tornados can form Preparedness: - develop a family plan - choose several places you may need to go if told to evacuate - know your evacuation route - keep a road map in your car in case the route is blocked - have a disaster supply kit - secure your home If caught - get as far inland as you can - find shelter immediately - stay low as to avoid being injured by flying debris Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 209

90 Tornados - Most form from thunderstorms - Warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico collides with cool, dry air from Canada and creates instability in the atmosphere. - horizontal spinning occurs as there is a change in wind direction - wind speed increases - rising air within the updraft tilts from horizontal to vertical - this creates a violently rotating column of air that extends from a thunderstorm cloud to the ground - Waterspout - is a weak tornado that forms over water - Southern states - most common from March through May - Northern states most common in the summer Dangers: - high winds, downed power lines, flying debris Preparedness: - develop a family plan - have a disaster supply kit - if time, turn of gas, electric, and water - go to a basement. - go to an interior room without windows on the lowest floor such as a bathroom or closet. If caught If you live in a mobile home get out Get out of automobiles. If outside, go to a ditch or low lying area and lie flat in it. Stay away from fallen power lines and stay out of damaged areas. 210 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

91 Winter Storms - Form when a very cold and dry air mass comes in contact with a warm, moist air mass - as moisture from the warm air mass rises, it changes to snow or ice crystals - precipitation can also be in the form of sleet, hail or freezing rain Blizzards: - heavy snow with poor visibility and winds in excess of 35 mph Lake effect: - when the cold air mass moves over an open lake or body of water that has not yet frozen - moisture from the lake rises into the air and is transformed into snow Dangers: - Frost bite, hypothermia, flying debris, roof collapse, downed power lines Preparedness: - develop a family plan - have a disaster supply kit - In car keep blankets and non-perishable food and water in case you are stranded If caught - find shelter immediately if at all possible - if in your car with no way to move stay there, run the car only for a short amount of time to take the freezing chill off. Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 211

92 Disaster planning: Directions: find a website that will help to develop a disaster plan and supply kit. The American Red Cross is a valuable place to look. Write down the information you feel is most important. You will not be able to copy it all so choose carefully. Create a Disaster Plan Meet with your family and discuss why you need to prepare for disaster. Explain the dangers of fire, severe weather, and earthquakes to children. Plan to share responsibilities and work together as a team. Discuss the types of disasters that are most likely to happen. Explain what to do in each case. Pick two places to meet: 1. Right outside your home in case of a sudden emergency, like a fire. 2. Outside your neighborhood in case you can't return home. Everyone must know the address and phone number. Ask an out-of-state friend to be your "family contact." After a disaster, it's often easier to call long distance. Other family members should call this person and tell them where they are. Everyone must know your contact's phone number. Discuss what to do in an evacuation. Plan how to take care of your pets. Post emergency telephone numbers by phones (fire, police, ambulance, etc.). Show each family member how and when to turn off the utilities (water, gas, and electricity) at the main switches. Teach family members how to use the fire extinguisher (ABC type), and show them where it's kept. Stock emergency supplies and assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit. Take a Red Cross first aid and CPR class. Determine the best escape routes from your home. Find two ways out of each room. Find the safe places in your home for each type of disaster Disaster Supplies Kit Water: Store one gallon of water per person per day. Keep at least a three-day supply of water per person (two quarts for drinking, two quarts for each person in your household for food preparation/sanitation). Food Store at least a three-day supply of non-perishable food. Select foods that require no refrigeration, preparation or cooking, and little or no water. If you must heat food, pack a can of sterno. Ready-to-eat canned meats, fruits, and vegetables First Aid Kit Assemble a first aid kit for your home and one for each car. adhesive bandages, various sizes, sterile gauze pads, cohesive bandage, germicidal hand wipes or waterless alcohol-based hand sanitizer, (2) pair large medical grade non-latex gloves, Anti-bacterial ointment, Cold pack, Scissors (small, personal), Tweezers, CPR breathing barrier, such as a face shield, Aspirin or nonaspirin pain reliever. Tools and Supplies Mess kits, or paper cups, plates, and plastic utensils, Battery-operated radio and extra batteries, Flashlight and extra batteries, Non-electric can opener, utility knife, Tape, Compass, Matches in a waterproof container, aluminum foil, signal flare, paper, pencil, needles, thread, whistle, extra blankets, Toilet paper, games and books 212 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

93 Base your answers to questions 1 through 5 on the weather satellite photograph of a portion of the United States and Mexico to the below. The photograph shows the clouds of a major hurricane approaching the eastern coastline of Texas and Mexico. The calm center of the hurricane, the eye, is labeled. 1. This hurricane has a pattern of surface winds typical of all low-pressure systems in the Northern Hemisphere. On the satellite photograph provided, draw three arrows on the clouds to show the direction of the surface wind movement outside the eye of the hurricane. 2. Cloud droplets form around small particles in the atmosphere. Describe how the hurricane clouds formed from water vapor. Include the terms dew point and either condensation or condense in your answer. Warm, moist air rises and cools to the dew point. Once the air is saturated water droplets condense around dust particles in the atmosphere. 3. State the latitude and longitude of the hurricane s eye. The compass directions must be included in the answer. 27 N 95 W Latitude Longitude 4. At the location shown in the photograph, the hurricane had maximum winds recorded at 110 miles per hour. Within a 24-hour period, the hurricane moved 150 miles inland and had maximum winds of only 65 miles per hour. State why the wind velocity of a hurricane usually decreases when the hurricane moves over a land surface. There is no warm water to help fuel the hurricane 5. State two dangerous conditions, other than hurricane winds, that could cause human fatalities as the hurricane strikes the coast. Storm surges / flooding, flying debris, fallen power lines (fires), high winds break tree branches 6. Describe one emergency preparation humans could take to avoid a problem caused by one of these dangerous conditions Go inland when a warning is issued Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 213

94 Base your answers to questions 7 through 11 on the passage below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The passage describes a tornado produced from a thunderstorm that moved through a portion of New York State on May 31, New York Tornado A small tornado formed and moved through the town of Apalachin, New York, at 5:30 p.m., producing winds between 40 and 72 miles per hour. The tops of trees were snapped off, and many large limbs fell to the ground. The path of the destruction measured up to 200 feet wide. At 5:45 p.m., the tornado next moved through the town of Vestal where winds ranged between 73 and 112 miles per hour. Many people experienced personal property damage as many homes were hit with flying material. At 6:10 p.m., the tornado moved close to Binghamton, producing winds between 113 and 157 miles per hour. A 1000-foot television tower was pushed over, and many heavy objects were tossed about by the strong winds. Then the tornado lifted off the ground for short periods of time and bounced along toward the town of Windsor. At 6:15 p.m., light damage was done to trees as limbs fell and small shallowrooted trees were pushed over in Windsor. The tornado increased in strength again at 6:20 p.m. as it moved into Sanford. Some homes were damaged as their roof shingles and siding were ripped off. One mobile home was turned over on its side. The tornado moved through the town of Deposit at 6:30 p.m., creating a path of destruction 200 yards wide. The tornado skipped along hilltops, touching down occasionally on the valley floors. However, much damage was done to homes as the tornado s winds reached their maximum speeds of 158 to 206 miles per hour. The tornado weakened and sporadically touched down after leaving Deposit. By 7:00 p.m. the tornado had finally ended its 1 -hour rampage. 7. On the map below, draw the path of the tornado and the direction the tornado moved, by following the directions below. Place an X through the point for each of the six towns mentioned in the passage. Connect the Xs with a line in the order that each town was mentioned in the passage. Place an arrow at one end of your line to show the direction of the tornado s movement. X X X X X X 214 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

95 8. The tornado mentioned in this passage was produced by cold, dry air from Canada quickly advancing into warm, moist air already in place over the northeastern United States. List the two-letter air-mass symbols that would identify each of the two air masses responsible for producing this tornado. cp and mt 9. Which type of front was located at the boundary between the advancing cold, dry air mass and the warm, moist air mass? cold front. F-Scale Number Wind Speed (mph) F F F F F F Fujita Scale Type of Damage Done some damage to chimneys; breaks branches off trees; pushes over shallow-rooted trees; damages sign boards peels surface off roofs; mobile homes pushed off foundations or overturned; moving autos pushed off the roads; attached garages may be destroyed considerable damage; roofs torn off frame houses; mobile homes demolished; boxcars pushed over; large trees snapped or uprooted; light-object missiles generated roof and some walls torn off well-constructed homes; trains overturned; most trees in forest uprooted well-constructed houses leveled; structures with weak foundations blown off some distance; cars thrown and large missiles generated strong frame houses lifted off foundations and carried considerable distances to disintegrate; automobile-sized missiles fly through the air in excess of 100 meters; trees debarked; steel-reinforced concrete structures badly damaged 10. Using the Fujita Scale shown above and the information in the passage, complete the table in your answer booklet, by assigning an F-Scale number for the tornado as it passed through each town given in the table below. Town F-Scale Number Vestal 1 Windsor 0 Sanford 1 Deposit Calculate the tornado s average rate of travel, in miles per minute, between Vestal and Windsor, by using the equation below. Express your answer to the nearest tenth. tornado s rate of travel = distance between Vestal and Windsor (miles) time (minutes) Rate of travel = 21 miles / 30 minutes = 0.7 miles/minute Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 215

96 Base your answers to questions 12 through 15 on the magazine article and diagram below. During the cold months of the year, the words lake effect are very much a part of the weather picture in many locations in New York State. Snow created by the lake effect may represent more than half the season s snowfall in some areas. In order for heavy lake-effect snow to develop, the temperature of the water at the surface of the lake must be higher than the temperature of the air flowing over the water. The higher the water temperature and the lower the air temperature, the greater the potential for lake-effect snow. A lake-effect storm begins when air flowing across the lake is warmed as it comes in close Lake-Effect Snow contact with the water. The warmed air rises and takes moisture along with it. This moisture, which is water vapor from the lake, is turned into clouds as it encounters much colder air above. When the clouds reach the shore of the lake, they deposit their snow on nearby land. A typical lake-effect storm is illustrated in the diagram below. The area most likely to receive snow from a lake is called a snowbelt. Lake Ontario s snowbelt includes the counties along the eastern and southeastern ends of the lake. Because the lake runs lengthwise from west to east, the prevailing westerly winds are able to gather the maximum amount of moisture as they flow across the entire length of the lake. There can be lake-effect snowfall anywhere around the lake, but the heaviest and most frequent snowfalls occur near the eastern shore. In parts of the snowbelt, the lake effect combines with a phenomenon known as orographic lifting to produce some very heavy snowfalls. After cold air has streamed over the length of Lake Ontario, it moves inland and is forced to climb the slopes of the Tug Hill Plateau and the Adirondack Mountains, resulting in very heavy snowfall. 12. State the relationship that must exist between water temperature and air temperature for lake-effect snow to develop. The temperature of the surface water must be higher than the temperature of the air flowing over it. 13. State why locations east and southeast of Lake Ontario are more likely to receive lake-effect snow than are locations west of the lake. The prevailing winds come from the west. 14. State the name of the New York State landscape region that includes location A shown in the diagram. Erie-Ontario Low Lands 15. State why very heavy snowfall occurs in the Tug Hill Plateau region. There is an increased amount of condensation occurring. 216 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

97 16. Which atmospheric conditions are necessary for condensation? (1) saturated air and dew point temperature much lower than air temperature (2) unsaturated air and dew point temperature much higher than air temperature (3) saturated air and equal dew point and air temperatures (4) unsaturated air and equal dew point and air temperatures 17. The heavy lake-effect snowfalls in the Tug Hill Plateau region occur primarily because the plateau is located (1) in the path of prevailing winds from Lake Ontario (2) in the Northern Hemisphere (3) near the Atlantic Ocean (4) west of the Hudson-Mohawk Lowlands Base your answers to questions 18 and 19 on the diagram below, which shows temperature changes within a parcel of air on a summer day C Temperature change 5 C /1000 m Height (m) C 12 C 22 C Temperature change 10 C /1000 m Temperature change 10 C /1000 m 0 Earth s Surface 32 C 18. At 4,000 meters above Earth s surface, the temperature within the cloud is approximately (1) 12 C (2) 3 C (3) 3 C (4) 0 C 19. Which process slows the rate of cooling above 3,000 meters and results in cloud formation? (1) condensation (2) convection (3) evaporation (4) radiation Energy in Earth s Atmosphere / Meteorology 217

98 Base your answers to questions 20 through 22 on the weather map below. The weather map shows a low pressure system in New York State during July. The L represents the center of the low-pressure system. Two fronts extend from the center of the low. Line XY on the map is a reference line. 20. The cross section below shows a side view of the area along line XY on the map. On lines 1 and 2 in the cross section, place the appropriate two-letter air-mass symbols to identify the most likely type of air mass at each of these locations. cp mt 21. The forecast for one city located on the map is given below: In the next hour, skies will become cloud covered. Heavy rains are expected with possible lightning and thunder. Temperatures will become much cooler. State the name of the city for which this forecast was given. Binghamton 22. Identify one action that people should take to protect themselves from lightning. Stay indoors 218 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

99 Hydrologic Cycle / Water Cycle The diagram below shows a model of the water cycle. The arrows show the movement of water molecules through the water cycle. The circled numbers represent the processes that occur as the water molecules reach the different stages of the water cycle. Complete the table below by identifying the name of the water cycle process occurring at each number. Describe or give examples of each of the process. No. Water Cycle Process Description or Example 1 Evaporation - The change in phase from liquid water to water vapor 2 Transpiration - Water vapor that enters the atmosphere from plants 3 Condensation - Water droplets form (condense) on dust particles (clouds) 4 Precipitation - Some form of water falling from the clouds (rain, sleet, hail, etc.) 5 Runoff - Water that flows over the land into a larger body of water 6 Infiltration - Water that soaks into the ground (becomes groundwater) Water Cycle and Climate 219

100 Four things that can happen to precipitation: (1) Evaporate back into water vapor (2) Infiltrate into the ground (3) Be stored in glaciers as ice (4) Roll across the surface as runoff Conditions that increase the rate of evaporation: (1) Dry air (2) Wind (3) Higher temperatures (4) Greater surface area Questions: Base your answers to questions 1 and 2 on the cross section below, which represents part of Earth s water cycle. Letters A, B, C, and D represent processes that occur during the cycle. The level of the water table and the extent of the zone of saturation are shown. 1. Which two letters represent processes in the water cycle that usually cause a lowering of the water table? (1) A and B (2) B and D (3) A and C (4) C and D 2. What are two water cycle processes not represented by arrows in this cross section? (1) transpiration and condensation (3) precipitation and freezing (2) evaporation and melting (4) runoff and infiltration 3. Most water vapor enters the atmosphere by the processes of (1) convection and radiation (3) condensation and precipitation (2) evaporation and transpiration (4) erosion and conduction 220 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

101 Base your answers to questions 4 and 5 on the two graphs below, which show the relationship between the amount of rainfall during a storm and the amount of discharge into a nearby stream. Letter A represents the time when approximately 50% of the precipitation from the storm has fallen. Letter B represents the time when peak runoff from the storm is flowing into the stream. The delay is the difference in time between letters A and B on the graph. Graph I shows data before urbanization in an area. Graph II shows data after urbanization in the same area. 4. The delay time between points A and B on both graphs is due mainly to the time needed for (1) groundwater to evaporate (2) precipitation water to move into the streams (3) green plants to absorb precipitation (4) rainfall rate to decrease 5. How did urbanization affect delay time between points A and B and the maximum stream discharge? (1) The delay time decreased, and the maximum discharge decreased. (2) The delay time decreased, and the maximum discharge increased. (3) The delay time increased, and the maximum discharge decreased. (4) The delay time increased, and the maximum discharge increased. 6. In general, the probability of flooding decreases when there is an increase in the amount of (1) precipitation (2) runoff (3) infiltration (4) snow melt 7. The flowchart below shows part of Earth s water cycle. The question marks indicate a part of the flowchart that has been deliberately left blank. Which process should be shown in place of the question marks to best complete the flowchart? Precipitation Runoff Ocean Water? Vapor (1) condensation (2) evaporation (3) deposition (4) infiltration Water Cycle and Climate 221

102 8. A container of water is placed in an open outdoor area so that the evaporation rate can be observed. The water will most likely evaporate fastest when the weather is (1) cool, humid, and windy (3) cool, dry, and calm (2) warm, humid, and calm (4) warm, dry, and windy 9. During a dry summer, the flow of most large New York State streams generally (1) continues because some groundwater seeps into the streams (2) increases due to greater surface runoff (3) remains unchanged due to transpiration from grasses, shrubs, and trees (4) stops completely because no water runs off into the streams Ground water & Infiltration & Factors 1. Permeability The ability for water to be able to flow through the soil or other materials 2. Permeability rate How fast the water flows through the material 3. Impermeable Water can not go through the ground -Concrete / pavement, tightly packed soil, saturated soil 3. Porosity The amount of hole space between the soil particles (air space) Allows water to flow through and is storage space as water infiltrates 4. Capillarity The upward movement of water through very tiny pore spaces 222 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

103 Factors that Effect Permeability Rate & Infiltration Factor that effect infiltration (a) Shape - Rounder particles (b) Size - Larger particles (c) Sorting - Sorted particles (d) Packing - Loosely packed Permeability rate (infiltration) is greatest when the following characteristics are true Factors that cause runoff (a) Saturated ground - no room for any more water (b) Slope - Steep slope (c) Temperature - Ground is frozen Runoff increases (infiltration decreases) when the following conditions occur (d) Weather - When it rains faster than the soil can take it in (e) Location - Pavement (concrete) Factors that Effect Porosity (a) Shape Rounder particles allow more water to infiltrate or be stored Flat particles does not hold much water (b) How tightly they are packed Loosely packed allows more infiltration and room for storage Tightly packed does not allow as much room in between the particles (c) Sorting Sorted particles allow more room in between them, increasing porosity Mixed soils have smaller pieces that fill in between the larger pieces and not as much water can fit Water Cycle and Climate 223

104 Size does NOT affect Porosity when the particles are sorted: Large Particles Larger particles have larger holes in between but not as many as the smaller particles Small Particles Smaller particles have smaller holes but a lot more than the larger particles Factors that Effect Capillarity The smaller the pore space the greater the capillarity Questions: 1. During a heavy rainstorm, soil samples A and B both became saturated with water. However, 10 minutes after the storm ended, the soils appeared as shown below. Which statement best explains the observed change in the water content of the soil samples? (1) The permeability of B is greater than the permeability of A. (2) The porosity of B is greater than the porosity of A. (3) The capillarity of B is greater than the capillarity of A. (4) The surface runoff at B is greater than the surface runoff at A. 2. During a rainfall, surface runoff will probably be greatest in an area that has a (1) steep slope and a clay-covered surface (2) steep slope and a gravel-covered surface (3) gentle slope and a grass-covered surface (4) gentle slope and a tree-covered surface 224 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

105 Base your answers to questions 3 through 5 on the diagram below. Columns A, B, C, and D are partially filled with different sediments. Within each column, the sediment is uniform in size. A fine wire mesh screen covers the bottom of each column to prevent the sediment from falling out. The lower part of each column has just been placed in a beaker of water. Sediment sizes are not drawn to scale. 3. Which column contains sediment with an average diameter closest to 0.1 centimeter? (1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D 4. In which sediment will capillary action cause the water from the beaker to rise fastest in the column? (1) small pebbles (2) medium sand (3) large sand (4) large silt 5. In an experiment, the beakers of water were removed and replaced with empty beakers. The sediments were allowed to dry. Then water was poured into each column to compare the permeability of the sediments. The permeability rate of the medium sand sample was shown to be (1) less than the silt and pebble samples (2) less than the silt sample but more than the pebble sample (3) greater than the silt sample but less than the pebble sample (4) greater than the silt and pebble samples 6. Which graph shows the effect of soil permeability on the amount of runoff in an area? (1) (2) (3) (4) 7. When rainfall occurs, the rainwater will most likely become surface runoff if the land surface is (1) sandy (2) covered with grass (3) impermeable (4) nearly flat Water Cycle and Climate 225

106 8. The diagrams below represent three containers, A, B, and C, which were filled with equal volumes of uniformly sorted plastic beads. Water was poured into each container to determine porosity and infiltration time. Which data table best represents the porosity and infiltration time of the beads in the three containers? Beaker Porosity (%) Infiltration Time (sec) Beaker Porosity (%) Infiltration Time (sec) A A B B C C (1) (3) Beaker Porosity (%) Infiltration Time (sec) Beaker Porosity (%) Infiltration Time (sec) A A B B C C (2) (4) 9. The diagram below shows the result of leaving an empty, dry clay flowerpot in a full container of water for a period of time. The water level in the container dropped to level A. The top of the wet area moved to level B. Level B is higher than level A because water (1) is less dense than the clay pot (2) is more dense than the clay pot (3) traveled upward in the clay pot by capillary action (4) traveled downward in the clay pot by capillary action 226 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

107 10. Which surface soil conditions allow the most infiltration of rainwater? (1) steep slope and permeable soil (3) steep slope and impermeable soil (2) gentle slope and permeable soil (4) gentle slope and impermeable soil 11. During a heavy rainfall, runoff will be greatest on a soil that has an infiltration (permeability) rate of (1) 0.1 cm/sec (2) 0.2 cm/sec (3) 0.3 cm/sec (4) 1.2 cm/sec 12. Which condition makes surface runoff of rainfall most likely? (1) The gradient of the surface is low. (2) Permeability rate exceeds the rate of rainfall. (3) Surface soil pore spaces are filled. (4) The porosity of the surface soil is high. 13. Which set of conditions would produce the most runoff of precipitation? (1) gentle slope and permeable surface (3) gentle slope and impermeable surface (2) steep slope and permeable surface (4) steep slope and impermeable surface Underground Water Terms 1. Zone of Aeration The amount of air space at the top of the soil 2. Zone of Saturation The area that is filled with water 3. Water Table The top of the zone of saturation Zone of Aeration Water Table Zone of Saturation SOIL Water Cycle and Climate 227

108 Questions: Base your answers to questions 1 through 5 on the diagrams to the right. The diagrams show two soil cross sections from adjacent fields in New York State. Both soils are the same except that human activities have removed the vegetation from the surface of field B. Each field has been receiving rain for several hours. 1. Which change would most likely result from replanting vegetation in field B? (1) Transpiration would decreases. (3) Erosion would increase (2) Runoff would increase (4) Water infiltration would increase 2. The soils in field B would have a higher rate of permeability if the soils (1) had lower porosity (2) had a steeper surface slope (3) were composed of larger rock particles (4) were compacted by machinery traveling over the field 3. These New York State soils are most likely composed of rock particles that have been (1) Transported by wind (2) Weathered from the underlying bedrock (3) Transported by glaciers or water (4) Weathered from the bedrock of northern Pennsylvania 4. In which field is soil most likely developing faster? (1) Field A, because plants are adding organic material to the ground (2) Field A, because less rainwater sinks into the ground (3) Field B, because more rainwater sinks into the ground (4) Field B, because less weathering occurs at the surface of the ground 5. If the skies remain clear for the week following this rain, the water in the wet zone in field B will (1) Mostly become surface runoff (2) Partially evaporate into the air (3) All remain as stored water along the surface (4) Mostly transpire into the ground 6. Assuming a constant land slope, the greatest infiltration of water into the Earth will occur when the surface is (1) Permeable and saturated (3) Permeable and unsaturated (2) Impermeable and saturated (4) Impermeable and unsaturated 228 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

109 7. The diagram to the right represents samples of soil and bedrock at Earth's surface. The arrows represent possible infiltration of rainwater. Which soil will allow the least amount of rainwater to infiltrate? (1) Pebble soil (2) Pebble and sand soil (3) Conglomerate bedrock (4) Granite bedrock 8. Which type of soil would water infiltrate most slowly? (1) silt (2) pebbles (3) fine sand (4) fine clay 9. As the temperature of the soil decreases from 10 C to -5 C, the infiltration rate of ground water through the soil will most likely (1) increase (2) decrease (3) remain the same 10. Flash flooding often occurs in city areas because (1) runoff decreases during precipitation (2) groundwater storage is usually very large (3) roads, pavements, and buildings reduce the infiltration of water into the ground (4) the hear generated by city areas decreases actual evapotranspiration 11. The diagram to the right represents zones within soil and rock. The zones are determined by the kinds of movement or lack of movement of water occulting within them. What is the deepest zone into which water can be pulled by gravity? (1) Aerated zone (2) Capillary fringe (3) Saturated zone (4) Impermeable zone Water Cycle and Climate 229

110 Base your answers to questions 12 through 15 on the water cycle diagram shown below. Some arrows are numbered 1 through 4 and represent various processes. 12. Which numbered arrow best represents the process of transpiration? (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) The clouds have formed primarily because moist air (1) rises, expands, and cools (3) sinks, compresses, and cools (2) rises, expands, and warms (4) sinks, compresses, and warms 14. For infiltration to occur, the ground must be (1) permeable and saturated (3) impermeable and saturated (2) permeable and not saturated (4) impermeable and not saturated 15. Which atmospheric condition is most likely responsible for the wind blowing the clouds from the sea toward the land? (1) high air temperature over the sea and low air temperature over the land (2) high air pressure over the sea and low air pressure over the land (3) low air density over the sea and high air density over the land (4) low visibility over the sea and high visibility over the land 16. A list of three observed relationships is shown below. Erosional rate = depositional rate Amount of insolation = amount of terrestrial radiation Rate of condensation = rate of evaporation In which situation would each relationship exist? (1) when a cyclic change occurs (2) when a change of state occurs (3) when dynamic equilibrium is reached (4) when global warming ceases and global cooling begins 230 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

111 Water Budget Terms a. potential evapotranspiration- The potential for evaporation and transpiration combined - increases as temperatures increase - the warmer the temperature the greater the chance for water to evaporate b. actual evapotranspiration - The amount of evaporation or transpiration that actually occurred - may be lower than potential evapotranspiration if there is not water to evaporate c. storage - The amount of water stored in the ground (groundwater) d. usage - The amount of water that is being used e. recharge - Comes from precipitation that adds water to the soil f. deficit - Occurs when the demand of water is greater than the amount available g. surplus - When there is an excess of water Water Cycle and Climate 231

112 Water Budget Graphs: Precipitation (P); Potential Evapotranspiration (Ep) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec P (mm) E P (mm) Difference Calculation x x x x x x Characteristic S S S S U U U/D D D R R R/S 232 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

113 Refer to the Water Budget Graph on page 108 to answer the following questions: 1. Which months was the amount of precipitation greater than potential evaporation? January, February, March, April, October, November, December 2. Name the months when moisture deficit exists. July, August, September 3. Name the months when a moisture surplus exists. December, January, February, March, April 4. Name the months when the soil is being recharged. October, November, December 5. Name the months when potential evaporation is greater than actual evapotranspiration. May, June, July, August, September General Water Budget Graph Questions: 1. What are two sources of moisture for a water budget? Groundwater and precipitation 2. What causes the potential evapotranspiration to vary from month to month? Temperature 3. What conditions exists when a moisture deficit occurs. High temperatures, no precipitation and no ground water 4. Using the terms potential evapotranspiration and actual evapotranspiration, explain how a moisture deficit can occur. When potential evapotranspiration is greater than actual evapotranspiration and the soil is dry (no more water is available) 5. What will happen to soil moisture storage when precipitation is more than potential evapotranspiration? The soil will be recharged and if precipitation continues a surplus will occur. Water Cycle and Climate 233

114 6. Explain how potential evapotranspiration can be greater than actual evapotranspiration. When the temperatures are very warm and there is no water available to evaporate 7. Compare the way a water budget graph in the northern hemisphere with a water budget graph in the southern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere, the line for potential evaporation will be highest in our winter months (December, January, February) 8. When looking at a water budget graph, how can you infer if the temperatures are warm or cold? The higher the line for potential evapotranspiration, the warmer the temperatures Questions: Base your answers to questions 1 and 3 on the graph of the water budget shown to the right. 1. During which months is there a water deficit? August, September, October (last part of July) 2. During which month does the highest average temperature occur? July 3. Is this location in the Southern or Northern Hemisphere? Northern Hemisphere (warmest temperature is in July) 234 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

115 Base your answers to questions 4 8 on the climate graphs below. Each climate graph shows the average monthly temperature and the average monthly precipitation for a particular location. Precipitation amounts are shown by the shaded bars and are read from the scale at the left of the graph. Temperatures are shown by the solid line and are read from the scale at the right of the graph. A 4. Which location would most likely have the highest average potential evapotranspiration (Ep) value for the month of July. A 5. Which location shows the greatest amount of change in average monthly precipitation? C 6. Which location is in the Southern Hemisphere? D 7. Which location has a climate typical of a region near the North Pole? 0 8. At what latitude is Location A close to? Water Cycle and Climate 235

116 9. The graphs below show the water budgets for four Northern Hemisphere locations. Which graph represents the location with the most humid climate? (Hint: first determine which line represents potential evapotranspiration) (1) (2) (3) (4) 10. The main source of moisture for the local water budget is (1) potential evapotranspiration (3) ground water storage (2) actual evapotranspiration (4) precipitation 11. The graph to the right shows the rate of rainfall during a storm and the stream discharge of a nearby stream on July 19. How long did the rainstorm last? (1) 5 hours (3) 3 hours (2) 2 hours (4) 4 hours 12. The table below shows the relationship between total yearly precipitation (P) and potential evapotranspiration (Ep) for different types of climates. (Hint: look at the chart to find the formula to use for the ratio.) Climate Classification Climate Type Total Yearly P/Ep Ratio Humid Greater than 1.2 Subhumid 0.8 to 1.2 Semiarid 0.4 to 0.8 Arid Less than 0.4 The total yearly precipitation (P) for a city in Texas is 218 millimeters. The total yearly potential evapotranspiration (Ep) is 951 millimeters. Which type of climate does this city have? (1) humid (2) semiarid (3) subhumid (4) arid 236 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

117 Factors that affect CLIMATE Latitude The higher the latitude the colder the temperatures - in lower latitudes (ex. Equator - 0 ) the temperatures are warm and the temperature range is very small (temperature range is the difference between the high and low temperature of an area) - if you travel away from the equator, temperatures get colder (higher latitudes) and temperature ranges increase Elevation The higher the elevation, the colder the temperatures Nearness to a large body of water - causes a small temperature range -Water takes longer to heat up and longer to cool down (higher specific heat) Ocean Currents If the area is near a coast the ocean current effect temperatures - warm currents cause warmer temperatures, colder currents cause colder temperatures 1. Which ocean current cools the climate of some locations along the western coastline of North America? (1) Florida Current (3) Canaries Current (2) California Current (4) Alaska Current 2. Identify by name the surface ocean current that cools the climate of locations on the western coastline of North America. California Current Water Cycle and Climate 237

118 Wind Belts Caused by the rotation of Earth - winds blow from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure - low pressure areas occur where winds are converging - high pressure areas occur where winds are diverging Dry NE winds Wet 60 N SW winds Dry 30 N NE winds Wet 0 SE winds Dry 30 S NW winds Wet 60 S SE winds Dry 238 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

119 Topography - mountains cause adiabatic cooling - the wind pushes the wind upward causing it to expand and cool - clouds form - the windward side of the mountain is wet and cool - on the leeward side of the mountain air sinks and compresses - the leeward side of a mountain is usually warm and dry Questions: 1. Which interaction between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere causes most surface ocean currents? (1) cooling of rising air above the ocean surface (2) evaporation of water from the ocean surface (3) friction from planetary winds on the ocean surface (4) seismic waves on the ocean surface 2. Compared to an inland location, a location on an ocean shore at the same elevation and latitude is likely to have (1) cooler winters and cooler summers (2) cooler winters and warmer summers (3) warmer winters and cooler summers (4) warmer winters and warmer summers 3. A high air-pressure, dry-climate belt is located at which Earth latitude? (1) 0 (2) 30 N (3) 15 N (4) 60 N Water Cycle and Climate 239

120 4. The Canaries Current along the west coast of Africa and the Peru Current along the west coast of South America are both (1) warm currents that flow away from the Equator (2) warm currents that flow toward the Equator (3) cool currents that flow away from the Equator (4) cool currents that flow toward the Equator 5. The arrows on the two maps below show how the monsoon winds over India change direction with the seasons. How do these winds affect India s weather in summer and winter? (1) Summer is cooler and less humid than winter. (2) Summer is warmer and more humid than winter. (3) Winter is warmer and less humid than summer. (4) Winter is cooler and more humid than summer. 6. Which condition would cause surface runoff to increase in a particular location? (1) covering a dirt road with pavement (2) reducing the gradient of a steep hill (3) planting grasses and shrubs on a hillside (4) having a decrease in the annual rainfall 7. Which condition makes surface runoff of rainfall least likely? (1) The gradient of the surface is high. (2) Permeability rate exceeds the rate of rainfall. (3) Surface soil pore spaces are empty. (4) The porosity of the surface soil is low. 8. Which factor most likely causes two cities at the same elevation and latitude to have different yearly average temperature ranges? (1) rotation of Earth (2) duration of insolation (3) distance from a large body of water (4) direction of prevailing winds 240 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

121 Base your answers to questions 9 and 10 on the field map below, which shows the average annual precipitation in New York State for the past 25 years. Isoline values represent inches per year. 9. Jamestown received more rainfall per year than Elmira. A reason for this difference is that Jamestown is located (1) closer to a large body of water (2) at a higher latitude (3) at a lower elevation (4) in the prevailing southerly wind belt 10. Which of these locations had the lowest average annual precipitation? (1) Kingston (2) Old Forge (3) New York City (4) Plattsburgh 11. Compared to the climate conditions of dry inland locations, the climate conditions of locations influenced by a nearby ocean generally result in (1) hotter summers and colder winters, with a larger annual range of temperatures (2) hotter summers and colder winters, with a smaller annual range of temperatures (3) cooler summers and warmer winters, with a larger annual range of temperatures (4) cooler summers and warmer winters, with a smaller annual range of temperatures Water Cycle and Climate 241

122 Base your answers to questions 12 through 14 on the map below, which shows Earth s planetary wind belts. 12. The curving of these planetary winds is the result of (1) Earth s rotation on its axis (2) the unequal heating of Earth s atmosphere (3) the unequal heating of Earth s surface (4) Earth s gravitational pull on the Moon 13. Which wind belt has the greatest effect on the climate of New York State? (1) prevailing northwesterlies (3) northeast trades (2) prevailing southwesterlies (4) southeast trades 14. Which climatic conditions exist where the trade winds converge? (1) cool and wet (2) warm and wet (3) cool and dry (4) warm and dry 15. Earth s entire equatorial climate zone is generally a belt around Earth that has (1) high air pressure and wet weather (2) high air pressure and dry weather (3) low air pressure and wet weather (4) low air pressure and dry weather 242 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

123 Base your answers to questions 16 through 18 on the map below. The map shows an imaginary continent on Earth. Arrows represent prevailing wind directions. Letters A through D represent locations on the continent. Locations A and B are at the same latitude and at the same elevation at the base of the mountains. 16. Over the course of a year, compared to location B, location A will have (1) less precipitation and a smaller temperature range (2) less precipitation and a greater temperature range (3) more precipitation and a smaller temperature range (4) more precipitation and a greater temperature range 17. The climate at location C is much drier than at location D. This difference is best explained by the fact that location C is located (1) farther from any mountain range (2) closer to a large body of water (3) at a latitude that experiences longer average annual daylight (4) at a latitude where air is sinking and surface winds diverge 18. Compared to the observations made at location D, the observed altitude of Polaris at location B is (1) always less (2) only less from March 21 to September 22 (3) only greater from March 21 to September 22 (4) always greater 19. Which two gases in Earth s atmosphere are believed by scientists to be greenhouse gases that are major contributors to global warming? (1) carbon dioxide and methane (3) oxygen and nitrogen (2) hydrogen and helium (4) ozone and chlorine Water Cycle and Climate 243

124 Base your answers to questions 20 through 24 on the map and graphs below. The map shows five climate regions of New York State. The bar graphs show average monthly temperatures of four of these climate regions. 20. The average monthly temperatures for climate regions 1, 2, 3, and 4 show a similar yearly pattern of change. Identify one climate control factor that these four climate regions have in common that most probably causes this similarity in temperature pattern. similar latitudes // similar duration of insolation // similar intensity of insolation 21. What climate variable, other than temperature, was also used to identify these areas as four different climate regions? humidity // precipitation // moisture 22. What landscape characteristic of climate region 3 most likely causes it to have both cooler summer temperatures and cooler winter temperatures than climate region 2? the elevation of area 3 is higher // climate region 3 is located in a mountainous region 244 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

125 23. On the grid provided below, construct a bar graph of the average monthly temperatures provided below for climate region 5. January has been completed for you. Average Temperatures for Climate Region 5 Month F January 34 February 36 March 42 April 52 May 61 June 72 July 79 August 74 September 68 October 55 November 49 December Describe how the Atlantic Ocean surrounding climate region 5 has most probably influenced the average temperatures of this region during January, February, and March. The ocean has moderated temperatures, making the temperatures warmer. // It has increased the temperatures during these months. 25.The cross section below shows the prevailing winds that cause different climates on the windward and leeward sides of this mountain range. Compared to the climate conditions on the leeward side of this mountain range, the conditions on the windward side are usually (1) cooler and wetter (3) cooler and drier (2) warmer and wetter (4) warmer and drier 26.The sharp, angular flat-topped hills (mesas) in a landscape region were most likely produced by a climate that was (1) tropical (2) dry (3) humid (4) polar 27.Landscapes will undergo the most chemical weathering if the climate is (1) cool and dry (2) warm and dry (3) cool and wet (4) warm and wet Water Cycle and Climate 245

126 Base your answers to questions 28 and 29 on the map below, which shows one method of classifying Earth s surface into latitudinal climate belts. In the tropical climate belt, the average monthly temperatures never drop below 18 C. In the polar climate belts, the average monthly temperatures never rise above 10 C. The isotherms show the average monthly temperature of the coolest and warmest months. Effects of elevation have been omitted. 28.According to the isotherms on the map, locations in the mid-latitude climate belts have average monthly temperatures between what values? 18 C and 10 C // 10 C and 18 C 29.Describe a specific characteristic of insolation received in the tropical climate belt region that causes the average monthly temperature to remain warm all year. This region receives a high angle of insolation each day. // High-intensity insolation is received all year. // The Sun is higher in the sky all year.//the tropical region receives more intense sunlight. 30. The map below shows part of North America. The arrows shown on the map most likely represent the direction of movement of (1) Earth s rotation (2) ocean conduction currents (3) the prevailing northeast winds (4) Atlantic Ocean hurricanes 246 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

127 Base your answers to questions 31 through 33 on the diagram below, which represents the planetary wind and moisture belts in Earth s Northern Hemisphere. 31. The climate at 90 north latitude is dry because the air at that location is usually (1) warm and rising (3) cool and rising (2) warm and sinking (4) cool and sinking 32. The paths of the surface planetary winds are curved due to Earth s (1) revolution (2) circumference (3) rotation (4) size 33. The tropopause is approximately how far above sea level? (1) 12 mi (2) 60 mi (3) 12 km (4) 60 km 34. Which graph best shows the average annual amounts of precipitation received at different latitudes on Earth? (1) (2) (3) (4) Base your answers to questions 35 and 36 on the graph below, which shows the average yearly temperature and average yearly precipitation for Earth locations A through E. 35. The climate indicated at location E on the graph would most likely be classified as (1) cold and dry (3) cold and humid (2) warm and dry (4) warm and humid 36. Which location has the climatic conditions necessary for the greatest amount of chemical weathering to occur? (1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D Water Cycle and Climate 247

128 Base your answers to questions 37 through 41 on the cross section below, which shows the general pattern of water movement in the water cycle. Letter X represents a water-cycle process. 37. What process of the water cycle is represented by X? evaporation 38. Describe the process of condensation. Condensation is the phase change from water vapor (gas) to water (liquid) 39. Describe one surface condition that would allow runoff to occur. The soil is saturated. // Rate of rainfall exceeds the rate of infiltration. // The ground is frozen. // The land has a steep slope. 40. Explain one role of plants in the water cycle. Plants release water into the air by transpiration. // Runoff is slowed by plants, so more infiltration can occur. 41. As the lake surface freezes in the winter, how many calories of heat are released by each gram of water? 80 calories/gram. 248 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

129 ASTRONOMY Rotation: - spinning of Earth on its axis - causes daylight and night - 1 day; 23 hours, 56 min, 4 sec - apparent motion of the sun around the Earth - 15 per hour Evidence of Rotation: Coriolis effect Foucault pendulum - causes deflection of winds and ocean currents - deflects to the right in the Northern Hemisphere -Circumpolar Stars - Star trails 1. A Foucault pendulum appears to change its direction of swing due to the (1) tilt of Earth s axis (2) spin of Earth on its axis (3) deflection of Earth s planetary winds (4) movement of Earth in its orbit around the Sun 2. Predictable changes in the direction of swing of a Foucault pendulum provide evidence that (1) Earth is tilted on its axis (3) Earth rotates on its axis (2) Earth s orbit is slightly elliptical (4) Earth s magnetic poles reverse over time 3. The apparent shift in the direction of swing of a the motion of a Foucault pendulum provides evidence of (1) the Sun s rotation (3) Earth s rotation (2) the Sun s revolution (4) Earth s revolution Astronomy 249

130 4. The apparent change in direction of a swinging Foucault pendulum is the result of the (1) rotation of Earth (3) revolution of Earth (2) tilt of Earth s axis (4) shape of Earth s orbit 5. Foucault pendulum is caused by Earth s (1) revolution (2) spherical shape (3) rotation (4) tilted axis 6. The best evidence that Earth spins on its axis is provided by (1) variations in atmospheric density (2) apparent shifts in the swing of a Foucault pendulum (3) changes in the position of sunspots on the Sun (4) eclipses of the Moon 7. The diagram below represents a Foucault pendulum swinging freely for 8 hours. The Foucault pendulum appears to gradually change its direction of swing due to Earth s (1) orbit around the Sun (2) tilted axis (3) curved surface (4) spin on its axis 8. The diagram below shows the equipment used to demonstrate a Foucault pendulum In the demonstration, a student swings the weight hanging in the pail and then spins the stool. The stool represents (1) the revolving Earth (2) the rotating Earth (3) the Coriolis effect (4) convection currents 250 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

131 Revolution: - Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun - takes 1 year, days - moves approximately 1 per day - cause the seasons Evidence of Revolution: - The location of the constellations in relationship to Polaris changes from month to month. Locating objects in the sky Celestial sphere The imaginary dome surrounding Earth Celestial Objects objects on the celestial sphere sun, stars, moon, planets Altitude the height above Earth s surface - celestial objects are measured in degrees - ex: the altitude of Polaris equals an observers north latitude Polaris Zenith E N S W Zenith the point located directly overhead of an observer altitude of 90 Astronomy 251

132 Azimuth - the angular measurement around Earth s surface - measured in degrees starting with due North located at 0 Azimuth and moving clockwise around the horizon. Direct ray of the sun Also known as the Sun s vertical ray - Occurs when the sun is directly overhead (at the zenith) - NEVER occurs in New York State Locations on Earth: Label the diagram below using the following locations. Equator ( 0 ) North Pole (90 N) South Pole (90 S) Tropic Cancer (23 ½ N) Tropic of Capricorn (23 ½ S) Axis of rotation Antarctic Circle (66 ½ S) Arctic Circle (66 ½ N North Pole - 90 N Arctic Circle - 66 ½ N Tropic of Cancer - 23 ½ N Equator - 0 Axis of rotation Tropic of Capricorn 23 ½ S Antarctic Circle - 66 ½ S South Pole - 90 S 252 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

133 Base your answers to questions 1 and 2 on the data table below, which shows the azimuths of sunrise and sunset on August 2 observed at four different latitudes. Azimuth is the compass direction measured, in degrees, along the horizon, starting from north. 1. On the outer edge of the azimuth circle below, mark with an X the positions of sunrise and sunset for each latitude shown in the data table. Write the correct letter code beside each X. The positions of sunrise and sunset for 30 N have been plotted and labeled with letters A and B. 2. State the relationship at sunrise between the latitude and the azimuth. As the latitude of the observer increases, the azimuth decreases. (or) As the latitude increases, Azimuth Circle the sunrise is farther north of east. X X X F D H G X E C X X Astronomy 253

134 3. Which statement about Polaris is best illustrated by the diagrams shown to the right? (1) Polaris is located in a winter constellation. (2) Polaris is located at the zenith at each location. (3) Polaris apparent movement through the sky follows a south - to - north orientation. (4) Polaris altitude is equal to a location s latitude. 4. In which diagram below, is the observer experiencing the greatest intensity of insolation? 5. The diagram below shows an observer on Earth measuring the altitude of Polaris. What is the latitude of this observer? (1) 43 N (2) 43 S (3) 47 N (4) 47 S 254 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

135 The diagram below illustrates Earth s position at the beginning of each season. Draw in the lines to show Earth s movement around the sun throughout the year. Label the seasons, the date it begins, location on Earth where the sun s vertical rays are and amount of daylight (in Northern hemisphere) for each position. N Summer Solstice June 21 Tropic of Cancer (23 ½ N) Longest day (just over 15 hrs) Vernal (spring) equinox March 21 Equator (0 ) 12 hours of daylight N N Winter Solstice December 21 Tropic of Capricorn (23 ½ S) Shortest day (just over 9 hrs) N Autumnal equinox September 23 Equator (0 ) 12 hours of daylight Astronomy 255

136 Angle of Insolation / Angle of Incidence Direct Ray At what location is the direct ray of the sun? Equator What seasons could this be? Spring or Fall Direct Ray At what location is the direct ray of the sun? Tropic of Capricorn What season would this be? Winter Direct Ray At what location is the direct ray of the sun? Tropic of Cancer What season would this be? Summer 256 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

137 Causes for the Seasons Tilt of Earth s axis - 23 ½ - causes different latitudes to have different amount of daylight - more daylight hours means warmer temperatures in that location Revolution around the Sun - Earth s orbit around the sun Parallelism of Earth s Axis - Earth s axis does not change direction Ex. Summer in the Northern Hemisphere - North Pole is tilted toward the Sun Altitude of the Noon Sun & Path through the Sky solar noon when the sun has reached its highest point in the sky NEVER directly overhead in New York State Shadow - longer when sun is lower in sky - direction at noon depends on your latitude 1. What is meant by within the tropics? Any place located between 23 ½ N and 23 ½ S of the equator 2. What determined where the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn would be located on Earth s surface? It is the last place north or south of the equator where the sun is directly overhead Astronomy 257

138 Where the Sun's Rays are at the Beginning of each Season When the Sun is directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer (23 1/2 N), it is the Summer Solstice Tropic of Cancer 23 1/2 N Equator 0 Tropic of Capricorn 23 1/2 S June 21 March 21 / September 23 When the Sun is directly overhead at the Equator, it is either the Autumnal Equinox or the Vernal Equinox. December 21 When the Sun is directly overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn (23 1/2 S), it is the Winter Solstice Determining the altitude of the noon sun during the equinoxes and solstices: How many degrees does the Sun move each season? 23 1/2 1. The altitude of the noon sun and path of the sun depends on two variables: Latitude and Season 2. When the direct ray of the sun is striking a location on Earth s surface, the altitude of the noon sun at that location is 90. For each of the following locations, name the month or months in which the noon sun is at the zenith for that location. Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn Equator New York State June December March & September Never 258 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

139 Location: Tropic of Cancer - 23 ½ N Date Altitude of noon Sun Direction of Noon Sun June Overhead September 23 Moves South Moves December South Moves March South Location: Tropic of Cancer - 23 ½ S Date Altitude of noon Sun Direction of Noon Sun December Overhead Moves March North Moves June North September 23 Moves North w Date September 23 Location: Equator - 0 Altitude of noon Sun Direction of Noon Sun 90 Overhead Moves December North Moves March Overhead Moves June South Astronomy 259

140 For any other latitudes: In the northern hemisphere use June as a starting month. Determine if the noon sun is higher or lower in the sky then at the Tropic of Cancer. Follow the procedure below. Buffalo, NY: 43 N 1. What is the latitude of Buffalo? 43 N 2. What is the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer? 23 ½ N 3. What is the difference between the two latitudes? 19 ½ 4. What is the altitude of the noon Sun at the Tropic of Cancer on June 21? Subtract the difference between latitudes from the altitude of the noon Sun at the Tropic of Cancer. This is the altitude of the noon Sun in New York State on June 21. * Place this value in the data chart for New York State below ½ = 70 ½ Location: Buffalo, NY - 43 N Date Location: Buffalo - 43 N Altitude of noon Sun Direction of Noon Sun June ½ South September 23 Moves South Moves December ½ South Moves March South 260 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

141 This diagram illustrates the path of the sun and the altitude of the noon sun on the celestial sphere for an observer in New York State (latitude 43 N) at the beginning of each season. Label each month for the paths drawn in the diagram below C May June April B March July February August January September A October November December W S N E 1. Which letter represents the path and altitude of the noon sun on... March 21? B December 21? A June 21? C 2. In November, the noon sun would most likely be between points A and B 3. In August, the noon sun would most likely be between points B and C 4. In May, the noon sun would most likely be between points B and C 5. In January, the noon sun would most likely be between points A and B Astronomy 261

142 Base your answers to questions 6 through 8 on the world map below. The shaded portion of the map indicates areas of night, and the unshaded portion indicates areas of daylight on a certain day of the year. Dashed latitude lines represent the Arctic Circle (66.5 N) and the Antarctic Circle (66.5 S). Point A is a location on Earth s surface. 6. Which diagram shows the position of Earth relative to the Sun s rays on this day? 7. Approximately how many hours of daylight would occur at position A on this day? (1) 6 (2) 12 (3) 9 (4) On this day, the duration of daylight from the equator to the Arctic Circle (1) decreases, only (3) decreases, then increases (2) increases, only (4) increases, then decreases 9. The diagram to the right represents a plastic hemisphere upon which lines have been drawn to show the apparent paths of the Sun at a location in New York State on the first day of each season. Letters A through I represent points on the paths. Which point represents the sunrise location on the first day of winter? (1) G (2) F (3) E (4) D 262 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

143 10. A student in New York State looked toward the eastern horizon to observe sunrise at three different times during the year. The student drew the following diagram that shows the positions of sunrise, A, B, and C, during this one-year period. Which list correctly pairs the location of sunrise to the time of the year? (1) A June 21 B March 21 C December 21 (3) A March 21 B June 21 C December 21 (2) A December 21 B March 21 C June 21 (4) A June 21 B December 21 C March The diagram to the right shows the noontime shadows cast by a student and a tree. If the time is solar noon and the student is located in New York State, in what direction is the student facing? (1) north (3) south (2) east (4) west Base your answers to questions 12 and 13 on diagrams I through III below. Diagrams I, II, and III represent the length and direction of the shadow of a vertical stick measured at noon on three different dates at 42 N latitude. 12. Explain how the changing altitude (angle of incidence) of the noon Sun affects the length of the shadows shown in the diagrams. The higher the angle of incidence, the shorter the shadow. 13. Describe the length and direction of the noon time shadow on June 21. The shadow in June would be shorter than 10 cm and would still point North. Astronomy 263

144 Base your answers to questions 14 through 18 on the diagram below. The diagram represents the apparent path of the Sun observed at four locations on Earth s surface on March 21. The present positions of the Sun, Polaris, and the zenith (position directly overhead) are shown for an observer at each location. 14. The observer at location A casts a shadow at the time represented in the diagram. a State the compass direction in which the observer at location A must look to view her shadow. Northeast b Describe the change in the length of the shadow that will occur between the time shown and sunset. The length of the shadow will increase. 15. State the approximate time of day for the observer at location B when the Sun is at the position shown in the diagram. 3 PM 16. Explain why the intensity of sunlight at noon on March 21 is greater at location C than at the other locations. Because the sun is directly overhead 17. The observer at location D is located at a higher latitude than the other three observers. State one way that this conclusion can be determined from the diagram. Polaris is directly overhead must be at 90 N 18. State the other day of the year when the Sun s apparent path is exactly the same as that shown for these four locations on March 21. September ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

145 19. The diagram below shows the apparent daily path of the Sun, as viewed by an observer at a certain latitude on three different days of the year. At which latitude were these apparent Sun paths most likely observed? (1) 0 (2) 43 N (3) 23.5 N (4) 66.5 N 20. Which diagram to the right correctly shows the apparent motion of Polaris from sunset to midnight for an observer in northern Canada? 21. The apparent daily path of the Sun changes with the seasons because (1) Earth s axis is tilted (2) Earth s distance from the Sun changes (3) the Sun revolves (4) the Sun rotates Astronomy 265

146 Base your answers to questions 22 through 24 on the diagram below, which shows a model of the apparent path and position of the Sun in relation to an observer at four different locations, A, B, C, and D, on Earth s surface on the dates indicated. The zenith (z) and the actual position of the Sun in the model at the time of the observation are shown. [The zenith is the point directly over the observer.] 22. According to the Sun s actual position shown in the diagrams, the most intense insolation is being received by the observer at location (1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D 23. Where on Earth s surface is the observer at location C located? (1) at the Equator (2) at the South Pole (3) at the North Pole (4) in Oswego, New York 24. From sunrise to sunset at location B, the length of the observer s shadow will (1) increase, only (2) decrease, only (3) increase, then decrease (4) decrease, then increase Base your answers to questions 25 and 26 on the diagram below, which shows numbered positions of the Sun at four different times along the Sun s apparent daily path, as seen by an observer in New York State. Numbers 1 through 4 represent apparent positions of the Sun. 25. The observer had the longest shadow when the Sun was at position (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) During which day of the year is the Sun most likely to follow the apparent path shown? (1) March 1 (3) October 1 (2) July 1 (4) December ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

147 Solar System Models Geocentric Model: Earth Centered Explained the following: - Earth was stationary with the Sun, Moon and planets revolving around it Epicycle planet - Night and day Sun - Revolution of the moon moon Earth planet Did not easily explain the following: - Movement of the inner and outer planets Geocentric Model Sun Centered Heliocentric Model: Explained the following: planet - Places the sun in the center of our solar system - Day and night - Seasons planet Sun planet Earth moon - Motion of all celestial objects Heliocentric Model Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo and other scientists in the 16 th and 17 th centuries supported this model. This is the model we use today. Astronomy 267

148 Star Paths - In the Northern sky, stars appear to move counterclockwise around Polaris. (Circumpolar stars) - In the Southern sky, stars appear to move from East to West in arcs just like the E S sun. - At the Southern horizon, stars appear to make very N W small arcs, seen for brief periods of time. Referring to the diagram above, which direction is an observer facing for each of the following star trails? Place the compass direction on the arrows next to each diagram. North West East South 268 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

149 Constellations - random patterns of stars in the night sky - Different constellations are visible at different times of the year - The big dipper is always visible in the northern sky in New York State - evidence of revolution 1. The diagram to the right represents the major stars of the constellation Orion, as viewed by an observer in New York State. Which statement best explains why Orion can be observed from New York State on December 21 but not on June 21? (1) Orion has an eccentric orbit around Earth. (2) Orion has an eccentric orbit around the Sun. (3) Earth revolves around the Sun. (4) Earth rotates on its axis. 2. Which event is a direct result of Earth s revolution? (1) the apparent deflection of winds (2) the changing of the Moon phases (3) the seasonal changes in constellations viewed in the night sky (4) the daily rising and setting of the Sun Astronomy 269

150 Base your answers to questions 3 through 6 on your knowledge of Earth science and on the table below, which lists the seven brightest stars, numbered 1 through 7, in the constellation Orion. This constellation can be seen in the winter sky by an observer in New York State. The table shows the celestial coordinates for the seven numbered stars of Orion. Locations of the Seven Brightest Stars I Orion Star Number Celestial Longitude (measured in hours) Celestial Latitude (measured in degrees) On the grid provided below, graph the data shown in the table by following the steps below. a Mark with an X, the position of each of the seven stars. Write the number of the plotted star beside each X. The first star has been plotted for you. b Show the apparent shape of Orion by connecting the Xs in the following order: X X X X 4. Star 1 plotted on the grid is the star Betelgeuse. Star 3 plotted on the grid is the star Rigel. How do the temperature and luminosity of Betelgeuse compare to the temperature and luminosity of Rigel? (ESRT pg 15) Rigel is hotter and its luminosity is slightly greater X X 5. The seven stars of the constellation Orion that were plotted are located within our galaxy. Name the galaxy in which the plotted stars of Orion are located. Milky Way 4. State one reason why an observer in New York State can never observe the constellation Orion at midnight during July but can observe the constellation Orion at midnight during January. Because Earth revolves around the Sun (axis is pointed in a different direction toward from the Sun in July) 270 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

151 5. Which statement provides evidence that Earth revolves around the Sun? (1) Winds at different latitudes are curved different amounts by the Coriolis effect. (2) Different star constellations are visible from Earth at different seasons of the year. (3) The Sun follows an apparent arc across the sky during the day. (4) The stars appear to circle Earth during the night. 6. In October, observers in New York State looking due south at the night sky would see a different group of constellations than they had seen in March. What is the best explanation for this change in the night sky? (1) Constellations revolve around Earth. (2) Constellations revolve around the Sun. (3) The Sun revolves around the center of our galaxy. (4) Earth revolves around the Sun. 7. In New York State, the constellation Pisces can be seen in the night sky between the middle of summer and the middle of winter. The constellation Scorpio can be seen in the night sky between early spring and early fall. The reason these two constellations can be viewed only at these times is a direct result of Earth s (1) spin on its axis (3) movement around the Sun (2) axis having a 23.5 tilt (4) distance from the Sun Base your answers to questions 8 through 10 on Diagram 1 and Diagram 2 below, which show some constellations in the night sky viewed by a group of students. Diagram 1 below shows the positions of the constellations at 9:00 p.m. Diagram 2 below shows their positions two hours later. 8. On both diagrams, extend an arrow through the pointer stars on the Big Dipper to locate Polaris. Then circle Polaris on each diagram. 9. In which compass direction were the students facing? North 10. Describe the apparent direction of movement of the constellations Hercules and Perseus during the two hours between student observations. Counter clockwise around Polaris Astronomy 271

152 Shape of Orbit The planets move in ellipses with the Sun at one focus Shape of Earth s orbit: Slightly elliptical with the Sun at one foci Eccentricity How oval an orbit is. How out of round it is. Formula: Eccentricity = Distance between Foci Length of Major Axis Major axis Determine the eccentricity of the ellipse to the right: Distance between foci 1) A circle has an eccentricity of, 0 and is least eccentric. 2) The more oval an ellipse is the more eccentric it is. The Force of Gravity 1) Gravity An invisible force of attraction 2) Gravity depends on two things: mass and distance 3) The larger the mass, the greater the gravitational attraction. 4) The closer objects are together, the greater the attraction. 272 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

153 Planet Velocities and Area The line joining the Sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time C 1. Between which two letters is the orbital A and B speed the slowest? A B 2. Between which two letters is the orbital C and D speed the fastest? D 3. The area s covered by the Earth as it travels from A to B and from C to D are equal 4. The speed of a planet depends upon its distance from the. Sun 5. The closer the Earth is to the Sun, the it travels in its orbit. Distance of planets with respect to the Sun Closest point to the Sun Perihelion Farthest point from the Sun Aphelion The square of the time (T 2 ) of revolution of a planet divided by the cube of its mean distance (R 3 ) from the Sun gives a number that is the same for all the planets Base your answers to questions 1 and 2 on the diagram of the ellipse below. 1. Calculate the eccentricity of the ellipse to the nearest thousandth. Eccentricity = Distance between foci Length of Major Axis = 2.7 / 8.1 = State how the eccentricity of the given ellipse compares to the eccentricity of the orbit of Mars. Mars is less eccentric (.093) Astronomy 273

154 Base your answers to questions 3 through 5 on the diagram below, which represents the elliptical orbit of a planet traveling around a star. Points A, B, C, and D are four positions of this planet in its orbit. 3. The calculated eccentricity of this orbit is approximately Eccentricity = Distance between foci Length of Major Axis (1) 0.1 (2) 0.2 (3) 0.3 (4) The gravitational attraction between the star and the planet will be greatest at position (1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D 5. As the planet revolves in orbit from position A to position D, the orbital velocity will (1) continually decrease (2) continually increase (3) decrease, then increase (4) increase, then decrease 6. The diagram below is a constructed ellipse. F1 and F2 are the foci of the ellipse. The eccentricity of this constructed ellipse is closest to the eccentricity of the orbit of which planet? (1) Mercury (3) Saturn (2) Earth (4) Neptune 7. Which planet has an orbit with an eccentricity most similar to the eccentricity of the Moon s orbit around Earth? (1) Earth (2) Pluto (3) Jupiter (4) Saturn 274 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

155 Base your answers to questions 8 and 9 on the diagram below, which shows the orbit of planet D around the star Upsilon Andromedae. The dashed lines show where the paths of the first four planets of our solar system would be located if they were going around Upsilon Andromedae instead of the Sun. All distances are drawn to scale. 8. Describe the eccentricity of planet D s orbit relative to the eccentricities of the orbits of the planets shown in our solar system. Planet D s orbit is more eccentric than the planets in our solar system 9. Describe the changes in gravitational force between planet D and the star Upsilon Andromedae during one complete orbit around the star. Be sure to describe where the force is greatest and where the force is least. The velocity is greatest when it is closest to the star and lest when it is farthest from the star 10. The diagram to the right represents the elliptical orbit of a moon revolving around a planet. The foci of this orbit are the points labeled F1 and F2. What is the approximate eccentricity of this elliptical orbit? (1) 0.3 (2) 0.7 (3) 0.5 (4) The diagram to the right shows the elliptical orbit of a planet revolving around a star. The star and F2 are the foci of this ellipse. What is the approximate eccentricity of this ellipse? (1) 0.22 (2) 0.68 (3) 0.47 (4) 1.47 Astronomy 275

156 Base your answers to questions 12 through 15 on the diagram below, which represents an exaggerated model of Earth s orbital shape. Earth is closest to the Sun at one time of year (perihelion) and farthest from the Sun at another time of year (aphelion). 12. State the actual geometric shape of Earth s orbit. Elliptical with the Sun at one foci 13. Identify the season in the Northern Hemisphere when Earth is at perihelion. winter 14. Describe the change that takes place in the apparent size of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, as Earth moves from perihelion to aphelion. The apparent size of the Sun decreases as Earth moves from perihelion to aphelion 15. State the relationship between Earth s distance from the Sun and Earth s orbital velocity. The closer Earth is to the Sun the faster its velocity The diagram below represents Earth at a specific position in its orbit as viewed from space. The shaded area represents nighttime. 16. Which Earth latitude receives the greatest intensity of insolation when Earth is at the position shown in the diagram? (1) 0 (2) 66 N (3) 23 N (4) 90 N 276 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

157 Satellites Satellite any object moving in an orbit around another object Sun Earth is a satellite of the. The moon is a satellite of. Earth Because Earth s orbit is Why do the distances between the sun and earth change? elliptical Phases of the Moon Sun 1) The apparent shape of the moon depends on the changing positions of the, Earth and. moon One month 2) How long does it take the moon to revolve around the Earth? 3) One complete orbit of the moon around the Earth takes about 27 1/3 days. 29 ½ 4) A complete cycle the moon's phases takes days. 5) Explain why there is a 2 ½ day difference between the revolution of the moon and the amount of time it takes to complete all of its phases. Because although the moons rotation of 360 takes 27 1/3 days, Earth is revolving around the Sun. It takes an additional 2 days for the Sun, moon and Earth to align to complete all of the phases Astronomy 277

158 3 2 Tell students to look and draw the phases of the moon using Earth as a reference point. Draw the arrows and lines for each view point as you go over each phase. Have them turn the books around so they are able to visualize it better The Sun s Rays New moon Full moon 2 6 Waxing Crescent Waning gibbous 3 7 First quarter Third quarter (last quarter) 4 8 Waxing gibbous Waning crescent 278 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

159 Eclipses of the Moon and Sun Penumbra The lighter part of a shadow partial shadow Umbra The darkest part of a shadow Lunar Eclipse: - occurs when the moon is in the full moon phase - the moon moves into Earth s shadow - because Earth s shadow is so large, it may last for an hour or more (until the moon moves out of Earth s shadow) Solar Eclipse: - occurs when the moon is in the new moon phase - the moons shadow moves over Earth s surface - the eclipse occurs where the point of the shadow hits Earth s surface Astronomy 279

160 Tides - The rising and falling of the ocean surface. - Change in tide is the result of the changing positions of the moon and sun relative to Earth - C lose to 2 high tides and 2 low tides per day Spring Tide: Neap Tide - Occurs when the moon and Earth - Occurs when the moon and Earth are aligned in a straight line with are at a right angle with the sun the sun - Occur twice a month - Occur twice a month - It is the lowest of the high tides and - It is the highest of the high tide and the highest of the low tide lowest of the low - Smallest change between high and - Greatest change from high to low low tide tide 280 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

161 Base your answers to questions 1through 3 on the graph below, which shows the water levels of ocean tides measured in Boston, Massachusetts, for a 2-day period. 1. The graph shows that high tides at Boston occur approximately every (1) 3.5 hours (2) 6.0 hours (3) 12.5 hours (4) 16.0 hours 2. If the trends shown by the graph continue, which statement best describes the next low tide at Boston that is expected to occur on Wednesday? (1) It will occur about 3 a.m. with a 0.4-meter water level. (2) It will occur about 6 a.m. with a 0.6-meter water level. (3) It will occur about 9 p.m. with a 2.6-meter water level. (4) It will occur about 10 p.m. with a 2.8-meter water level. 3. The gravitational pull of the Moon has the greatest influence on the water levels of Earth s ocean tides. If the distance between the Moon and Earth were to decrease steadily for the week following the time shown on the graph, which water level changes would be expected to occur? (1) High tides would get higher and low tides would get lower. (2) High tides would get lower and low tides would get higher. (3) Both high tides and low tides would get higher. (4) Both high tides and low tides would get lower. Astronomy 281

162 Base your answers to questions 4 through 8 on the diagram below, which represents the Moon orbiting Earth as viewed from space above the North Pole. The Moon is shown at eight different positions in its orbit. 4. The approximate time required for the Moon to move from position 3 to position 7 is (1) 1 hour (2) 3 months (3) 2 weeks (4) 4 days 5. As the Moon changes location from position 2 to position 6, the visible portion of the Moon as observed from Earth (1) decreases, only (3) decreases, then increases (2) increases, only (4) increases, then decreases 6. Which motion causes the Moon to show phases when viewed from Earth? (1) rotation of Earth (3) rotation of the Sun (3) revolution of Earth (4) revolution of the Moon 7. Which device when placed on the Moon would provide evidence of Moon rotation? (1) Foucault pendulum (2) thermometer (3) seismograph (4) wind vane 282 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

163 8. When the Moon is in position 2, which phase would be visible to an observer in New York State? The diagram below shows the relative positions of the Sun, the Moon, and Earth when an eclipse was observed from Earth. Positions A and B are locations on Earth s surface. 9. Which statement correctly describes the type of eclipse that was occurring and the position on Earth where this eclipse was observed? (1) A lunar eclipse was observed from position A. (2) A lunar eclipse was observed from position B. (3) A solar eclipse was observed from position A. (4) A solar eclipse was observed from position B. 10. The diagram below shows the Sun, the Moon, and Earth in line with one another in space. On the diagram, draw two dots ( ) on the surface of Earth to indicate the locations where the highest ocean tides are most likely occurring. Astronomy 283

164 Base your answers to questions 11 and 12 on the graph below. The graph shows the recorded change in water level (ocean tides) at a coastal city in the northeastern United States during 1 day. 11. Which inference about tides is best made from this graph? (1) The hourly rate of tidal change is always the same. (2) The rate of tidal change is greatest at high tide. (3) The tidal change is a random event. (4) The tidal change is cyclic. 12. According to the pattern shown on the graph, the next high tide will occur on the following day at approximately (1) 12:30 a.m. (2) 3:15 a.m. (3) 2:00 a.m. (4) 4:00 a.m. 13. The cyclic rise and fall of ocean tides on Earth is primarily caused by Earth s rotation and the (1) temperature differences in ocean currents (2) revolution of Earth around the Sun (3) direction of Earth s planetary winds (4) gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun 284 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

165 14. Which description of change is most closely associated with ocean tides and moon phases? (1) cyclic and predictable (3) noncyclic and predictable (2) cyclic and unpredictable (4) noncyclic and unpredictable 15. Ocean tides are best described as (1) unpredictable and cyclic (3) unpredictable and noncyclic (2) predictable and cyclic (4) predictable and noncyclic 16. The diagram below shows the Moon orbiting Earth, as viewed from space above Earth s North Pole. The Moon is shown at eight positions in its orbit. Spring ocean tides occur when the difference in height between high tide and low tide is greatest. At which two positions of the Moon will spring tides occur on Earth? (1) 1 and 5 (2) 3 and 7 (3) 2 and 6 (4) 4 and The diagram below represents the Sun s rays striking Earth and the Moon. Numbers 1 through 4 represent positions of the Moon in its orbit around Earth. The highest tides on Earth occur when the Moon is in positions (1) 1 and 3 (3) 3 and 2 (2) 2 and 4 (4) 4 and 1 Astronomy 285

166 Base your answers to questions 18 through 20 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram shows the Sun, Earth, and the Moon s orbit around Earth as viewed from space. 18. On the diagram provided above, draw a circle of approximately this size to represent the Moon s position in its orbit when a solar eclipse is viewed from Earth. 19. Approximately how many complete revolutions does the Moon make around Earth each month? one 20. Explain why solar eclipses do not occur every time the Moon revolves around Earth. Because the moon s orbital plane is tilted about What is represented by the diagram below? (1) changing phases of the Sun (2) changing phases of the Moon (3) stages in an eclipse of the Sun (4) stages in an eclipse of the Moon 286 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

167 22. The diagram to the right shows Earth s orbit around the Sun and different positions of the Moon as it travels around Earth. Letters A through D represent four different positions of the Moon. An eclipse of the Moon is most likely to occur when the Moon is at position (1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D Base your answers to questions 23 through 24 on the world map below, which shows regions of Earth where a solar eclipse was visible on May 20, Locations A, B, C, and D are on Earth s surface. 23. At which location could an observer have viewed this total solar eclipse if the skies were clear? (1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D 24. Which statement best describes the visibility of this eclipse from locations in New York State? (1) A total eclipse was visible all day. (2) A total eclipse was visible only from noon until sunset. 3) A partial eclipse was visible only from noon until sunset. (4) Neither a partial nor a total eclipse was visible. Astronomy 287

168 Our Solar System Asteroid Belt Terrestrial Planets rocky planets primarily composed of silicate rocks examples Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars Jovian Planets examples Asteroid belt Gas giants, very low density Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune Located between Mars and Jupiter Is composed of thousands of asteroids meteor A streak of light in the sky that occurs when a meteoroid enters Earth s Atmosphere shooting star meteorite A meteor that reaches Earth s surface Comets A huge dirty ice ball that revolves around the sun - When close enough to the sun, exhibit a tail 288 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

169 Galaxy Galaxy - A huge system that includes billions of stars, planets, moons and all other space matter that is held together by gravitational attraction What is the name of our galaxy? Milky Way What kind of a galaxy do we live in? Spiral galaxy Where is our solar system located within the galaxy In one of its spiral arms The Universe The Universe Includes everything that exists from the smallest object to the largest galaxies Big Bang Theory About 15 billion years ago an massive explosion took place and started the formation of the universe evidence The universe is still expanding in every direction Radioactive aftermath of the initial explosion (background radiation) Red shift of galaxies Astronomy 289

170 The diagram below illustrates three stages of a current theory of the formation of the universe. Spectral lines The separation of different colors based on wavelengths It is why we have rainbows. red shift: objects moving away - caused by the expansion of space - The farther away an object moves the more the wavelength is stretched out blue shift: objects moving towards another object The closer object moves the more the wavelength is decreased 290 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

171 A Star is Born Nebula cloud of dust hydrogen and plasma Protostar Black Hole Massive Star Super Red Giant Super Nova Neutron Star Main Sequence Star Red Giant Planetary Nebula White Dwarf Star formation: Stars start out is a nebula which is a massive cloud of dust, hydrogen and plasma. Due to gravitational attraction the cloud collapses and temperature increases significantly, nuclear fusion is taking place where hydrogen is becoming helium. A protostar forms. From there, stars can become a main sequence star or a massive star. Astronomy 291

172 Stars differ from each other in Mass, weight, size, temperature and brightness Our Sun Is an average size star located in the main sequence Classification of stars: Based on temperature and brightness Luminosity is relative to the sun Einar Hertzsprung and Henry Russell developed a graph called the H-R Diagram - compares the spectral class color / temperature of a star against their luminosity brightness Refer to the ESRT s pg 15 Luminosity and Temperature of Stars Diagram: 1. Within what area on the diagram is the Sun located? Main sequence 2. Name the star that has a similar temperature and luminosity as the Sun Alpha Centuri 3. What does Polaris and the Sun have in common? Color, temperature 4. What is the name of the hottest star located on the Diagram? Rigel 5. Which star has the same luminosity as Alpha Centauri? The Sun 6. Name a Red Dwarf Barnard s Star 7. Name a White Dwarf Procyon B 8. What color star is Betelgeuse? Red Sunspots - An area of the Sun s surface that has lower temperatures. The appear to be dark spots on the Sun s surface What happens when they occur? May disrupt air line communication, GPS signals, cell phones, ATM transactions Speed of light - 299,792,458 meters per second - It takes 8.4 minutes for the Sun s light to reach Earth. Light year - The distance light can travel in one year Why is it said that when you see the light of distant stars you are gazing at the past? Some starlight takes millions of years to reach Earth, Star may not be there anymore 292 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

173 1. The graph below represents the brightness and temperature of stars visible from Earth. Which location on the graph best represents a star with average brightness and temperature? (1) A (3) C (2) B (4) D 2. The length of an Earth year is based on Earth s (1) rotation of 15 /hr (3) revolution of 15 /hr (2) rotation of approximately 1 /day (4) revolution of approximately 1 /day 3. The Milky Way galaxy is best described as (1) a type of solar system (2) a constellation visible to everyone on Earth (3) a region in space between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter (4) a spiral-shaped formation composed of billions of stars 4. Compared to Pluto, Mercury moves more rapidly in its orbit because Mercury (1) is larger (3) is more dense (2) is closer to the Sun (4) has a more elliptical orbit 5. The diagram to the right represents a simple geocentric model. Which object is represented by the letter X? (1) Earth (3) Moon (2) Sun (4) Polaris Astronomy 293

174 Base your answers to questions 6 through 10 on the Earth Science Reference Tables, the diagram below, and your knowledge of Earth science. The diagram shows a portion of the solar system. 6. Which scale diagram best compares the size of Earth with the size of Venus? 7. Which of the following planets has the lowest average density? (1) Mercury (2) Earth (3) Venus (4) Mars 8. The actual orbits of the planets are (1) elliptical, with Earth at one of the foci (2) elliptical, with the Sun at one of the foci (3) circular, with Earth at the center (4) circular, with the Sun at the center 9. Mercury and Venus are the only planets that show phases when viewed from Earth because both Mercury and Venus (1) revolve around the Sun inside Earth s orbit (2) rotate more slowly than Earth does (3) are eclipsed by Earth s shadow (4) pass behind the Sun in their orbit 294 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

175 10. Which graph best represents the relationship between a planet s average distance from the Sun and the time the planet takes to revolve around the Sun? 11. Which object orbits Earth in both the Earth centered (geocentric) and Sun-centered (heliocentric) models of our solar system? (1) the Moon (3) the Sun (2) Venus (4) Polaris 12. The Sun s position in space is best described as the approximate center of (1) a constellation (3) the universe (2) the Milky Way galaxy (4) our solar system 13. The diagram to the right represents two planets in our solar system drawn to scale, Jupiter and planet A. Planet A most likely represents (1) Earth (3) Saturn (2) Venus (4) Uranus 14. Compared to Earth s solar system, the universe is inferred to be (1) younger and larger (3) older and larger (2) younger and smaller (4) older and smaller 15. Terrestrial planets move more rapidly in their orbits than the Jovian planets because terrestrial planets are (1) rotating on a tilted axis (3) more dense (2) more massive (4) closer to the Sun 16. Which event is a direct result of Earth s revolution? (1) the apparent deflection of winds (2) the changing of the Moon phases (3) the seasonal changes in constellations viewed in the night sky (4) the daily rising and setting of the Sun Astronomy 295

176 Base your answers to questions 17 through 19 on the information, data table, and diagram below and on your knowledge of Earth science. Astronomers have discovered strong evidence for the existence of three large extrasolar (outside our solar system) planets that orbit Upsilon Andromedae, a star located 44 light years from Earth. The three planets are called planet B, planet C, and planet D. Some of the information gathered about these three new planets is shown in the table below. The period of revolution for planet C has been deliberately left blank. The diagram below compares a part of our solar system to the Upsilon Andromedae planetary system. Planet distances from their respective star and the relative size of each planet are drawn to scale. [The scale for planet distances is not the same scale used for planet size.] 17. Planet D s diameter is 10 times greater than Earth s diameter. What planet in our solar system has a diameter closest in size to the diameter of planet D? Saturn 18. As planet B travels in its orbit, describe the change in orbital velocity of planet B as the distance between Upsilon Andromedae and planet B decreases. Speed increase 19. If our solar system had a planet located at the same distance from the Sun as planet C is from Upsilon Andromedae, what would be its approximate period of revolution? Anywhere between days to less than days. 296 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

177 Base your answers to questions 20 through 22 on the data table below, which shows one cycle of equinoxes and solstices for the northern hemispheres of several planets in the solar system and the tilt of each planet s axis. Data for the planets are based on Earth s time system. 20. State the length, in years, of the spring season on Uranus.20,21 or 22 years 21. Describe the relationship between a planet s distance from the Sun and the length of a season on that planet. As distance increases, length of season increases 22. Identify two factors that cause seasons on Earth. tilt of axis, Earth s revolution 23. Which diagram sequence correctly shows the order of Moon phases, as viewed from Earth, for a period of 1 month? [Note that some phases have been omitted.] Astronomy 297

178 Base your answers to questions 24 and 25 on the diagram below, which shows the Moon, Earth, and the Sun s rays as viewed from space. Letter A indicates a certain position of the Moon in its orbit. 24. Which diagram correctly shows the direction of Earth s rotation and revolution? 298 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

179 25. Which diagram represents the phase of the Moon, as seen by an observer on Earth, when the Moon is located at position A in its orbit? 26. The diagram below shows a satellite in four different positions as it revolves around a planet. Which graph best represents the changes in this satellite s orbital velocity as it revolves around the planet 27. Which sequence correctly lists the relative sizes from smallest to largest? (1) our solar system, universe, Milky Way Galaxy (2) our solar system, Milky Way Galaxy, universe (3) Milky Way Galaxy, our solar system, universe (4) Milky Way Galaxy, universe, our solar system 28. Which list shows stars in order of increasing temperature? (1) Barnard s Star, Polaris, Sirius, Rigel (2) Aldebaran, the Sun, Rigel, Procyon B (3) Rigel, Polaris, Aldebaran, Barnard s Star (4) Procyon B, Alpha Centauri, Polaris, Betelgeuse 29. The passage of the Moon into Earth s shadow causes a (1) lunar eclipse (2) new Moon (3) solar eclipse (4) full Moon Astronomy 299

180 30. The symbols below are used to represent different regions of space. Which diagram shows the correct relationship between these four regions? [If one symbol is within another symbol, that means it is part of, or included in, that symbol.] 31. What is the main reason that the gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon changes each day? (1) Earth s axis is tilted at (2) Earth s rotational speed varies with the seasons. (3) The Moon has an elliptical orbit. (4) The Moon has a spherical shape. 32. Which object in our solar system has the greatest density? (1) Jupiter (2) the Moon (3) Earth (4) the Sun 33. Which sequence of Moon phases could be observed from Earth during a 2-week period? 300 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

181 Base your answers to questions 34 and 35 on the diagram below, which shows an inferred sequence in which our solar system formed from a giant interstellar cloud of gas and debris. Stage A shows the collapse of the gas cloud, stage B shows its flattening, and stage C shows the sequence that led to the formation of planets. 34. From stage B to stage C, the young Sun was created (1) when gravity caused the center of the cloud to contract (2) when gravity caused heavy dust particles to split apart (3) by outgassing from the spinning interstellar cloud (4) by outgassing from Earth s interior 35. After the young Sun formed, the disk of gas and dust (1) became spherical in shape (3) became larger in diameter (2) formed a central bulge (4) eventually formed into planets 36. Compared to the temperature and luminosity of the star Polaris, the star Sirius is (1) hotter and more luminous (3) hotter and less luminous (2) cooler and more luminous (4) cooler and less luminous 37. The Big Bang Theory, describing the creation of the universe, is most directly supported by the (1) redshift of light from distant galaxies (2) presence of volcanoes on Earth (3) apparent shape of star constellations (4) presence of craters on Earth s Moon Astronomy 301

182 Base your answers to questions 38 through 40 on the diagram below, which shows two possible sequences in the life cycle of stars, beginning with their formation from nebular gas clouds in space. 38. According to the diagram, the life-cycle path followed by a star is determined by the star s initial (1) mass and size (2) temperature and origin (3) luminosity and color (4) luminosity and structure 39. Stars like Earth s Sun most likely formed directly from a (1) nebula (2) red giant (3) supernova (4) black dwarf 40. According to the diagram, a star like Earth s Sun will eventually (1) explode in a supernova (2) become a black hole (3) change into a white dwarf (4) become a neutron star 302 ESworkbooks 2008cdunbar

183 41. The diagram below represents the shape of the Milky Way Galaxy. The Milky Way Galaxy is best described as (1) elliptical (2) circular (3) irregular (4) spiral 42. A camera was placed outside at night and pointed directly at Polaris and several other stars. The lens was kept open and a time-exposure photograph was taken. The diagram below represents that photograph of Polaris and star trails, with an angular protractor to measure apparent motion. How many hours was the lens kept open to create the star trails in this photograph? (1) 1 hour (3) 3 hours (2) 6 hours (4) 4 hours Astronomy 303