The Geological Survey of Finland enhances research on ore formation

Transcription

1 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FINLAND CONTACT MAGAZINE 2/2012 The Geological Survey of Finland enhances research on ore formation p. 10 Europe sharpens up in the field of mineral research p. 6 M4D turns mineral resources into the drivers of development in poor countries p. 16

2 Contents contents 3 Director s note Raimo sutinen, GTK 4 News 6 Europe sharpens Up in the field of MINERAL research 10 GTK enhances research ON ore formation and LOOks deeper down INFLOW: Science for the future of the Baltic Sea Frequent Finnish acid sulfate soils scrutinized s.18 s.10 s M4D turns mineral RESOURCES into the DRIVERS of development IN poor countries 18 Finland takes advanced steps in Arctic silviculture 19 New publications Jukka Laukkanen, GTK GEOFoorumi 2/2012 Publisher: Geological Survey of Finland, Editor in chief: Sini Autio Layout and design: Satu Lusa/Kaskelotti Editorial board: Sini Autio, Hannu Idman, Jarmo Kohonen, Pekka Nurmi, Taina Järvinen, Marie-Louise Wiklund Front cover: An esker ridge forms a chain of island rising from the Lake Pielinen near Koli in Eastern Finland. Photo: Jari Väätäinen, GTK Printed by Tampereen yliopistopaino Oy Juvenes Print ISSN Geofoorumi 2/2012

3 Director s note GTK GTK takes on the future GTK s significance as a centre of excellence and contributor to Finnish society is highlighted by our willingness to tackle complex problems widely. We play an active role in building and maintaining a pan-european geodatabase and have a central role in implementing national and EU-level mineral policy. GTK s services will continue to evolve rapidly, along with customer needs, in the coming years. Changes in our operating environment have challenged us to rethink our structure and allocation of resources. We have adjusted our strategic focus in recognition of three megatrends. The first, and the most important, is the global struggle for access to resources. This challenge extends beyond securing access to mineral supplies to find environmentally sound and effective ways to use our finite mineral wealth. We now focus our research capacity on sustainable use of natural resources. As a dedicated research institution, GTK is in a good position to study many aspects of resource use from discovery to mineral processing at the pilot plant scale. GTK actively participates in the extensive Green Mining research programme of the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation, with priority research areas focusing on material and energy efficiency, new mineral resources and invisible and intelligent mining. In particular, 21 st century technologies have sharply increased the strategic importance of hi-tech metals. GTK is researching the metals of the future as the lead coordinator of ProMine, the 17-million euro, EU-funded project on minerals and nanotechnologies. Urbanisation is the second global driver increasing construction and other resource-intense sectors. EU directives provide guidance to deal at the national level. In particular, high growth in urban areas fuels demand for geological data in construction and maintenance of infrastructure. Third, climate and energy policy have come to the fore. Finnish government policy now promotes renewable energy sources, self-sufficiency and a versatile energy system. As a geological expert, GTK plays an important role in Finland, especially in the final disposal of spent nuclear fuel deep in crystalline bedrock, geoenergy solutions for regions with a low thermal gradient and slowly renewable biomass/fuel peat resources. GTK is an internationally oriented geosciences organisation working actively within the EU and globally. GTK participates in international efforts to create a more integrated and accessible environment for the vast resources of past and future data of the geological surveys. GTK s internationally funded export projects also reflect GTK s growing involvement in the international development of the field. Elias Ekdahl Director General GeoFoorumi is the in-house magazine of the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK). It is published two times a year and its articles cover topics of interest to professionals in geology and the community at large. The spring issue is in Finnish and the autumn one in English. Subscription requests and change-of-address information may be submitted by to taina.jarvinen@gtk.fi. GTK produces and disseminates geological information for industry and society to promote systematic and sustainable use of crustal resources and the national geological endowment. GTK serves as Finland s national geoscientific information centre and participates actively in international research and project work. GTK is an agency of Finland s Ministry of Employment and the Economy. The Survey was established in GTK Contact Information Geological Survey of Finland Southern Finland Office Betonimiehenkuja 4 POB 96 FI ESPOO Eastern Finland Office Neulaniementie 5 POB 1237 FI KUOPIO Western Finland Office Vaasantie 6 POB 97 FI KOKKOLA Northern Finland Office Lähteentie 2 POB 77 FI ROVANIEMI 2/2012 Geofoorumi 3

4 In brief GeoTreat a tourist portal to Nordic geology Samuli lehtonen During the winter storm of January 2005, wastepaper bales were used to prevent flooding on the Market Square in Helsinki. The rich, variable and beautiful geological heritage of the Nordic countries is well worth exploring. In order to guide visitors and introduce them to places of interest, the Geological Surveys of Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden have therefore developed GeoTreat a mobile phone app for geotourists. The hope of the app developers is that by experiencing the beauty of the Nordic nature, with the geology covering a vast time span, from rocks forming billions of years ago to glaciations occurring today, will be of great inspiration to visitors to the Nordic countries, allowing them to add value to the adventure of visiting another part of the world. The app is developed for Android phones but a future goal is to develop this app for Microsoft phones and iphones. GeoTreat is introduced at the 34 IGC in Brisbane. Adapting to climate change in the countries surrounding the Baltic Sea The effects of climate change include changes in precipitation, riverine and coastal floods and rising sea levels. In the Baltic Sea Region, the continuing growth of coastal urban areas, increasing economic importance of tourism, and the need to protect nature and natural resources lead to new challenges: How to safeguard drinking water availability and quality? How to manage floods? How to design new urban areas and retrofit existing ones? The BaltCICA project investigated these questions in The partnership comprised 24 partners including municipalities, regional authorities and research institutes in the Baltic Sea Region. The results of the BaltCICA project were presented at a conference held on January in Helsinki, Finland The project was part-financed by the EU Baltic Sea Region Programme See also The Mineral Processing Laboratory completes the surveys of GTK GTK s Mineral Processing Laboratory provides a wide range of ore beneficiation research services for the mining industry. It offers a unique platform for the development and testing of energy-saving, low-environmental-impact crushing, grinding and concentration processes. The lab is equipped to develop mineral processing methods anywhere along the beneficiation chain from mineralogical analysis to dealing with process waste. Moreover, testing of promising methods can readily be ramped up from bench-scale to pilot-scale test campaigns a capability virtually unmatched elsewhere in the world. The applicability of mineral processing to environmental remediation and recycling has also been demonstrated on numerous occasions, e.g. remediation of contaminated soils and separation and recycling of metallurgical slags. For more information, please contact GTK s Mineral Processing Laboratory on kauko.ingerttila@gtk.fi. 4 Geofoorumi 2/2012

5 In brief Drilling in Outokumpu reveals deep secrets The Outokumpu Deep Drilling Project, where a 2.5 km deep hole was drilled for research purposes, was coordinated by GTK in The project has resulted in a great variety of results, and more are expected because the site is open for use by national as well as international research groups. The deep hole penetrated a strong seismic reflector at km depth which is represented by ophiolitic altered ultrabasic rocks in the drill core, the same rock type assemblage that host the sulphide ore in the Outokumpu area. The deep hole revealed the presence of highly saline gas-bearing fluids and a deep biosphere completely of its own kind. The results show too, that in addition to normal main rock types of metasedimentary rocks and ophiolitic The Outokumpu Deep Drilling Project brings understanding on the occurrence, composition and origin of saline fluids and gases in the crystalline bedrock. rocks there is also somewhat unexpected pegmatitic granite from two kilometres downwards. The bedrock is under high stress which is demonstrated in the granite section as breaking of the core into disks. The temperature gradients and heat flow in the hole show paleoclimatic effects from the glacial period. The Outokumpu Deep Drilling project was participated by research teams from seven countries. GTK still welcomes co-operation in using the borehole and its materials. The deep drilling project was included in an agreement on debt conversion between Finland and Russia.The results of the Outokumpu Deep Drilling project are published in SpecialPaper51.html. See also page 31. The international IODP drilling project for the Baltic Sea has been approved 2012 Cnes/Spot Image. Image 2012 TerraMetrics. Data SIO, NOAA, U.S.Navy, NGA, GEBCO The application (Palaeoenvironmental evolution of the Baltic Sea basin through the last glacial cycle) for the international Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) for bringing a drilling vessel and programme to the Baltic Sea was approved in November The drilling will be done in The Baltic Sea drilling project will be carried out as an international cooperation venture in the countries surrounding the Baltic, among other IODP countries. The project involves geologists e.g. from Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Russia. The project is being lead by Sweden. In Finland the GTK has the main responsibility for the research plan. Preparation of the IODP drilling proposal has been underway since 2002, when a group of geologists from the countries surrounding the Baltic decided to start preparing the IODP application. The drilling proposal has been approved after a multi-stage application process. The project is considered important on an international scale and worth executing. The Baltic Sea drilling project drills up 220 meters long sediment cores from approximately ten different sites. 2/2012 Geofoorumi 5

6 Mineral resources Europe sharpens up in the field of mineral research Europe digs up competitiveness from below ground, too. Finland also invests in the entire mining cluster through research. TEXT Helinä Hirvikorpi The mineral supply is essential for the competitiveness of European industry. Europe uses per cent of the world s metals but Europe s internal production is only 3 per cent. Europe has industrial minerals, but still relies mostly on imports. Global demand for minerals has increased rapidly after the economic boom began in Asian countries. Many of the Asian countries, such as China, produce a lot of minerals, but use an increasing amount of them themselves. As demand increases, so do prices. Between 2002 and 2008, metal prices trebled. In Europe, Fennoscandia (Northern Nordic Countries, such as Finland) have a large mineral potential. Finland and Sweden could be called the mineral granaries of the EU. Thus, geological surveying and developing exploration methods have become more important than ever. On the initiative of the EU, European mineral service and a common mineral policy have been developed. RMI (Raw Material Initiative) was created in After this, the next significant decision was permission from the European Parliament for European Innovation Partnerships in raw material research, says Raimo Lahtinen, Research Professor at GTK. This means adopting an approach that exceeds the boundaries of public and private research in a way that allows us to Timo Tarvainen, GTK The closed talc mine in Lahnaslampi, Eastern Finland, will be restored by filling. broaden our horizons and re-initiate Europe s economic growth. Europe has awoken to a new situation, in which demand for raw materials has increased significantly and new needs for raw materials that have not been used before have arisen. Therefore it was important to define the critical raw materials, their economic importance to European industry and the risk caused to their availability if Europe depended only on one country, such as China, for supplies, says Lahtinen. Europe has awoken to a new situation. Hi-tech metals and zero waste In the future, the use of different hi-tech metals will increase, and some of these metals can be found in Finland. Superconductors, battery technology, electronics and nanomaterials depend on these materials. GTK is co-ordinating the ProMine project, funded by the EU, which maps these future metals and opportunities related to nanotechnology. Hi-tech metals include lithium, titanium, gallium, germanium, indium, tellurium, antimony, niobium, tantalum, and rare earth metals. Finland s bedrock contains favourable occurrences of many hi-tech metals and GTK has a research project focusing on these. GTK has participated in international research cooperation with, for example, the Geological Survey of Japan, which is specialised in rare earth metals. 6 Geofoorumi 2/2012

7 FINLAND S GREEN MINING CONCEPT Finland is a part of EU s raw material production. In addition to raw material production, it is important to participate in developing resource-efficient and environmentally friendly technologies, thus strengthening our existing business and developing new business opportunities. The goal is to get close to so-called zero waste level in the future. This means that almost everything that is excavated will be utilized and recycled efficiently, Research Professor Lahtinen describes. The objective is decoupling: even though economic growth and raw materials use increase, environmental impacts decrease instead of increasing. Promotes materials and energy efficiency Ensures availability of mineral resources for future needs Minimizes adverse environmental and social impacts Improves work and organisational practices Ensures sustainable land use following mine closure Social license to operate Green Mining in the whole production chain One of the megatrends is that the tightening competition for raw materials is global. Concern about the availability of minerals and consideration of the environmental perspectives will be increasingly linked to mineral and metal use. Another megatrend is related to rapid population growth, which causes strong immigration: people all over the world are moving to growth centres. As a result of urbanisation, construction is focused more than before on dense city structures. Traffic routes and infrastructure required by energy and water management is built underground. The third factor is the growing significance of climate and energy policies. For industries, the most important questions, in addition to availability and price of energy, is the acceptability of production methods and environmental perspectives. This is why green mining is one of GTK s most important fields of research. The goal is to get close to so-called zero waste level in the future. The Green Mining Programme is to make Finland a global leader in the sustainable mineral industry. Green mining is a holistic approach for developing the whole mining sector. The solutions aim to minimise environmental impacts and problems caused to communities in the whole production chain. At the same time, new working methods and procedures will be developed and safety improved. Green mining also includes an action plan for the time when an ore deposit is exhausted and mining ends. The purpose of green mining is to improve the energy efficiency of raw materials in the whole production chain. Green mining means better utilisation of by-products by collecting them and utilising them in an energy-efficient way with low emissions, says GTK s Research Director Pekka Nurmi. New research projects The Green Mining project is funded by Tekes, the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation governed by the Finnish Ministry of Employment and the Economy. The project includes many research projects that can be expected to produce new solutions for the entire mining cluster. The project that was started in 2011 received a number of applications, of which Tekes has approved 13 research projects. These include, for example, research related to management of arsenic in mining environments and a research programme related to management of nitrogen compounds. The two other projects are also related to emissions. They are related to measurement sets. Online measurement, for example, allows faster access to emissions. The programme also studies the utilisation of geothermal heat. The Green Mining programme focuses on new mineral resources and intelligent, minimum-impact mines. The research projects also provide opportunities for international networking, says Kari Keskinen, the head of Tekes Green Mining programme. According to Keskinen, Finnish mining expertise is already top-class in certain sectors. The main objective of the Green Mining Programme is to make Finland a global leader in the sustainable mineral industry by /2012 Geofoorumi 7

8 Mineral resources A cross-section of the Kemi mine in Northern Finland that started operation in Mining operations can be carried out in underground facilities to reduce the environmental impact. South West Shaft Surmaoja exploration tunnel Belt conveyor EAR m 3 /s 580-level Pump station Sublevel caving area Gyratory Crusher EAR 6 60 m 3 /s 550 Backfill raise 2 Cemented backfilling station 115-level Repair shop 350-level Pump station Outokumpu oyj North East EAR 3 FAR m 3 /s 70 m 3 /s 500-level Maintenance area and pump station Trial stoping area 350-level Repair shop 450-level Explosive storage Fresh Air Raise (FAR) Exhaust Air Raise(EAR) Backfill raise Ground heat from a mine The water within soil can be utilised in collecting heat. In Finland this is a new idea. Currently we are pumping water away from mines and treating it before it is pumped elsewhere. In mines, hazardous substances are also released to water. It is possible to collect heat from water in this treatment phase by using heat pump technology, says Asmo Huusko, Senior Specialist at GTK. Heat is transferred from bedrock into water, and during mining operations there are also other heat sources in the mines. Water stores and transfers heat. Heated water is pumped to the surface and utilised with heat pumps. The calorific value changes depending on the depth of the mine. The deeper we go, the higher the temperature within the bedrock. In Finland the temperature of the bedrock is low, but heat can be increased using pump technology. Water cannot be used for heating directly, but the calorific value has to be increased with a heat pump. Two regional energy companies also participates in the research project. We want to find out the true potential and make a profitability calculation before building test equipment. Usually mines already utilise heat from enrichments plants and process equipment, but when we have two energy companies involved, it could be possible to lead heat from the mines also to the local district heating network, Huusko states. The wastewater from mines would thus create a new business model. Getting nitrogen under control The research project for the management of environmentally hazardous nitrogen compounds is based on the needs of companies. Because mining operations and demand for bedrock aggregates will significantly increase in the coming years, nitrogen emissions caused by explosives are also likely to increase. Most nitrogen compounds originate from the explosives used in mines. Another reason for the increase of nitrogen concentration in the waters in the mining area is the cyanide compounds used in the gold enrichment processes. Before the Green Mining programme started, we were planning a research programme for Tekes Water Pro- gramme. At this time, mining companies and technology suppliers brought forth various challenges related to nitrogen, caused by regulations that become more and more strict. Current research will be carried out in cooperation by GTK, the Technical Research Centre of Finland and Tampere University of Technology, says Research Scientist Raisa Neitola. A consortium participating in the research consists of mining companies, actors in the rock industry, and technology and service providers. The project aims to collect information about nitrogen compounds and their behaviour in mine and quarry environments and to develop processing and monitoring technologies that allow Finnish mining industry to use explosives in a sustainable way. It is important to get more information on the behaviour of nitrogen compounds in mine areas. It is also important to increase competence for minimising the environmental impacts of nitrogen emissions released from the mine areas. All this improves the operational preconditions of mining companies. Hopefully also technology and service providers can utilise the results of the research in developing new business concepts related to water treatment and nitrogen control for the mining industry, Neitola says. 8 Geofoorumi 2/2012

9 BRGM, 2009 First Pan- European mineral deposit database goes live Critical Raw Materials in Europe Map produced from the MD Database. The first Pan-European Mineral Deposit (MD) Database has just been completed by a team of European experts, as part of the ProMine project, coordinated by GTK in Finland. The publically available interactive database allows the intelligent exploitation of Europe s mineral resources, while also acting as an effective new land use management tool for Europe. The comprehensive database was built using data supplied by seven Pro- Mine partner institutes and an industrial partner, spread across seven European countries, with additional inputs from Bulgaria, FYROM and Romania. The MD Database is now accessible to the public online through the ProMine website. Maps issued from the database include the Main Mineral Deposits of Europe and the Critical Raw Materials in Europe. These show the 14 most critical commodities in Europe. The ProMine project began in 2009 and is a collaboration between industry and research focused on the development of new products from mineral resources in Europe. As a project, ProMine is stimulating the extractive industries in Europe to decrease Europe s dependency and trade deficit on foreign raw material imports. The four year project is partfinanced by the European Community. To discover more about the ProMine project please visit and to view the Pan-European Mineral Deposit (MD) Database go to gtk.fi/promine/default.aspx The ProMine Project s web based GIS is now publically available through the website. Exploration methods for sensitive areas New ore exploration methods are needed in the sensitive areas of the North. Finland has a lot of potential for finding new ore deposits. This is reflected in the large number of mine and ore exploration projects, especially in northern Finland. Despite the current ore exploration boom, there are vast areas which have not been thoroughly surveyed. Natural conditions create challenges: there are thick layers of soil, mires and weathered bedrock. The nature in the arctic areas is typically sensitive and vast areas in Northern Finland belong to the national Natura conservation programme. Ore exploration in such areas is extremely challenging and expensive. The project aims to find cost-efficient solutions to this, says Vesa Nykänen, manager, bedrock geology and resources, at GTK. 2/2012 Geofoorumi 9

10 Research and development GTK enhances research on ore formation and looks deeper down The bedrock in Finland has good potential for containing still unfound metal ore deposits. The demand for hi-tech metals is rapidly growing, but the need for base metals has not disappeared. The GTK enhances its research in understanding ore genesis and directs its investigations deeper into the bedrock. TEXT Harriet Öster Although the whole of Finland has been surveyed by airborne geophysical mapping, there are areas of which only little is known. Due to the glaciated terrain, the bedrock is almost entirely covered with soil, and only 3.8% of the bedrock is revealed. Thus much of the direct information on the bedrock is based on drill core sampling, the amount of which varies significantly by region. We have recently finished several nationwide mapping programmes. Now we are focusing more on evaluating the regional mineral potential and on how to utilise the information more efficiently the demand is for generally useful and comparable information, says Raimo Lahtinen, Research Professor in mineral potential at GTK. Lahtinen sees challenges in meeting both the growing demand for new hi-tech metals and the continuous need for base metals. The Finnish bedrock contains good potential to discover some of the most desired hi-tech metals and most of the base metals. With new metals and minerals a challenge is to find enough innovations for their use, and there we need continuous research. Without a critical volume, the production of the metals is not economically feasible. More traditional metals, on the other hand, are always needed, but there is another challenge: we have to go much deeper than before. This has created a situation, where we need to be extremely versatile. We need to understand more about how ore is formed and we need to investigate the In this situation we need to be extremely versatile. bedrock better, deeper down and with methods that give a 3D model of the bedrock. FORMATION OF GOLD DEPOSITS UNDER STUDY Finland is one of the few European countries to recognise the importance of its mineral resources. Personally, I believe that the future motor of the European mineral industry will be in northern Europe and especially in Finland, says Ferenc Molnár, Research Professor in ore geology at GTK. He has extensive research experience from Canada, United States, South America and several European countries. Since joining GTK in 2011, Molnár has started two research projects with the goal of understanding how mineral deposits are formed, and two more projects are in the pipeline. We want to get a better understanding of how the gold deposits were formed in the very old Archean and Proterozoic rocks in eastern and northern Finland. The present geological model of the processes can be refined. This would support more efficient mineral exploration and our knowledge about orogenic processes during early stages of Earth`s evolution. The other ongoing research project concerns the connection between porphyry copper deposits and epithermal gold deposits in belts found in Proterozoic rocks in central and southern Finland. According to Molnár, this has been studied a lot in younger rocks, but much less is known about this kind of deposits in older rocks. 10 Geofoorumi 2/2012

11 The main metallic zones of Finland. REFLECTION SOUNDING FOR DEEP INFORMATION For investigating the bedrock deep down, GTK uses geophysical methods such as seismic reflection sounding, which gives information on structures in the bedrock at depths of several kilometres. Since it is an expensive method, the use is allocated to regions with a well-known ore potential. The resolution provided by reflection sounding is better than that provided by any other method of geophysical mapping. Reflection sounding can distinguish layers with a vertical thickness of metres at a depth of one kilometre. In the horizontal direction the target must be metres wide to be identified as an independent body, says Ilmo Kukkonen, Research Professor in applied geophysics at GTK. Reflection surveys provide vertical 2D cross-sectional images of the bedrock. By joining two or more intersecting measurement lines, a digital 3D visualisation of the results can be created. Potential targets for more detailed studies can be found by comparing the results with geological and geophysical maps and drilling sections. To get more precise information on ore targets, for example, drilling samples have to be taken. GTK has used reflection seismics for surveying 15 well-known Finnish ore areas in the HIRE project. MINERAL OCCURRENCE IN EXTENSIVE DATABASE GTK has developed a number of databases containing information on the occurrence and mines of different metals in the Finnish bedrock. By the end of 2012, these databases are to be combined into a single entity, based on global geostandards and classifications. The whole way of thinking has changed concerning the use of our databases, which during the years have been created separately. The GTK Mineral Occurrence database will be comprehensive and continuously updated. Based on it, it is possible to construct various information services for many different purposes. 2/2012 Geofoorumi 11

12 Research and development We hope to launch the first data delivery portal based on it during spring 2013, says Chief Geologist Jouni Vuollo at GTK in Rovaniemi. Vuollo explains: Since technology has developed enough to allow constructing diverse databases into a single information service, this is the international trend. The data delivery service is the most important feature: the terminology has to be standardised in the databases to be connected. Vuollo is a member of the Interoperability working groups developing standards and vocabularies both on the EU and global level. EACH ORE HAS ITS OWN PROCESS GTK s Mineral Processing Laboratory (Mintec) and research group is dedicated to developing customised processing of different kinds of ores. Every ore is individual and demands its own enrichment process. Compared to other places, Mintec has a good team and the leading facilities in Europe. Finland is a country rich in ore resources and the mining industries are prospective. This will make Mintec at Outokumpu an important player in mineral processing in the future, says Jason Yang, Research Professor in mineral processing. Yang was employed at GTK s mineral processing laboratory last autumn and has endured his first cold and dark winter at Outokumpu. He says the winter was really no problem, since he enjoys indoor activities. HIRE gives more information on ore provinces In the HIRE project (High Resolution Reflection Seismics for Ore Exploration) 15 Finnish ore provinces were surveyed using reflection seismics. The provinces are known to contain base metals, precious metals, metals used in steel manufacturing, and platinum group elements. At each location seismic sounding was performed along roads or off-road tracks in a connected network, gathering enough data for 3D modelling. The project consisted of altogether 700 kilometres of sounding lines. The images show vast amounts of previously unknown bedrock structures that are potential ore exploration targets. In order to understand the results correctly, additional information is needed, such as geological maps and information from drilling samples. The final report from the HIRE project will be published during D modelling under research in Outokumpu Geological models of the well-known ore province Outokumpu have been the object for research in a project for 3D modelling, where modelling techniques are integrated with human interpretation and theories of ore formation. We have studied modelling methods by combining the extensive data from Outokumpu with the newest 3D modelling software. The aim is to get a better comprehensive view of the modelling process, says GTK Senior Scientist Eevaliisa Laine. Since information from deep down is sparse, several alternative geological models fit the data. When modelling in connection with ore exploration it could be wise to start with more than one geological model. As understanding and theories change with time, the geological models have to be updated accordingly. The research report will contain a suggestion for a 3D modelling process and an overview of the results with different models down to a depth of three kilometres. Fennoscandian ore deposits in free database and book The most recent result of the research cooperation on ore deposits in the Fennoscandian Shield is a book, Mineral Deposits and Metallogeny of Fennoscandia. For a decade now, the geological surveys of Finland, Sweden, Norway and Russia have worked together on the metallogeny of the region. Previously they produced a deposit database (FODD) and a deposit map. These are built on uniform principles and the database is updated annually. FODD is a unique source of information, as it is publicly accessible on the web. The book on Fennoscandia contains information from the database and results from research in economic geology, supplied by the geological surveys, says GTK Senior Scientist Pasi Eilu, editor of the publication. Both the database and the book are meant to give background information when planning minerals exploration. During the next two years, FODD will be extended to include additional metals and industrial minerals. 12 Geofoorumi 2/2012

13 Research and development The Baltic Sea and its resources are of great importance to the surrounding countries. It is therefore crucial to manage these resources in an efficient and sustainable manner, taking into account both natural variability and humancreated changes in its ecosystem. INFLOW is an interdisciplinary research project aimed at discovering more about the sea s past conditions and accurately modeling its future. INFLOW: Science for the future of the Baltic Sea Photographs of sediment cores ( and ) from the Baltic Sea (Gotland Deep) (left), together with organic carbon (%) (black curve) and TEX86 estimated sea surface temperatures (ºC) (red curve). MoWP, LIA and MCA indicate Modern Warm Period, Little Ice Age, and Medieval Climate Anomaly, respectively. Also shown: estimated age-depth correlation (years 1900 and 1950). TEXT Maya Sovijärvi One of the 16 BONUS+ research projects, INFLOW has taken place from , though publishing of final results is still ongoing. Leading researchers from seven Baltic countries have participated, from fields as diverse as geology, climate science, and mathematical modeling. The basis has been, tells Research Professor Aarno Kotilainen, the collaboration of the sediment researchers with the modelers, in order to find out not just about the past changes, but also to consider the factors which have affected this change. Sediment proxy studies were used to create a comprehensive picture of the conditions of the past oxygen levels, temperatures, salinity etc. Model experiments provided insight into the mechanisms triggering the Baltic Sea ecosystem state changes as observed in sedimentary archives, and validated models allow for the reliable scenario simulations of the conditions of the future. Under the current IPCC scenario of future global warming, the condition of the Baltic Sea is not likely to improve. Specifically, the INFLOW research has revealed increased sea surface temperatures and extended seafloor anoxia during earlier natural warm climate phases such as the Medieval Climate Anomaly. That might have enhanced also releasing If the temperature rises, such internal load of phosphorus combined with the human activities will make the currently taken measures to protect the Baltic Sea insufficient. more phosphorus from the seafloor itself. It must be expected that if the temperature rises, such internal load of phosphorus combined with the load from human activities will make the currently taken environmental measures to protect the Baltic Sea insufficient, warns Research Professor Kotilainen. The aim of INFLOW has not been only to produce this information, but also to take steps to ensure that it is delivered to where it is most needed. Politicians are not often in the habit of attending scientific conferences, yet it is crucial that the decisions made are based on the best possible scientific information. It has therefore been part of the project to make the results available, in an understandable form, to decision makers from the local council all the way up to EU level. A point has also been made of creating awareness amongst the public of the state of our sea, its importance, and the steps necessary for its protection, and sustainable use of its resources. 2/2012 Geofoorumi 13

14 Environmental impacts Frequent Finnish acid sulfate soils scrutinized Acid sulfate soils occur all over the world. They are frequently formed in waterlogged tidal areas at the coast and in flooding areas inland. When left undisturbed, these wet soils containing sulfides are harmless, but if they are drained, the sulfides react with oxygen in the air, forming sulfuric acid. Of the present Finnish land area, a considerable part was under water dursoils in Europe is the flat coastal region of Ostrobothnia in western Finland, where the land rises up to 8 millimetres per year and the shoreline draws back up to one kilometre in a century. Peter Edén, GTK Acid sulphide clay soil in Western Finland, Northern Europe. GTK is mapping the coastal regions of the country that have a risk of containing acid sulfate soils. The first general maps are published this year and the whole project is due to be finished before the end of Finland has the largest areas of acid sulfate soils in Europe. TEXT Harriet Öster ing a warm period after the last ice age some 8,000 years ago. Since the Litorina Sea of that time was eutrophicated, lots of organic matter was deposited and sulfidebearing sediments were formed. Due to the continuous post-glacial land uplift, the former seafloor has gradually developed into shore and then into land areas, often used for agriculture. The largest single area with acid sulfate ACID WATERS CONTAINING HEAVY METALS The problems start when the sulfidecontaining soil is drained and cultivated and turns into acid sulfate soil. The sulfuric acid dissolves metals from the soil. Snow melting in the spring or heavy rain in autumn occasionally result in an environmental problem of acid and metalrich load in the waterways, says environmental geologist Peter Edén of GTK. In addition to the water becoming acid, thus killing aquatic organisms, and receiving a hazardous load of heavy metals, construction work is also jeopardized. Sulfuric acid corrodes and destroys both concrete and steel constructions only stainless steel is strong enough to withstand it. We have known about the existence of these acid sulfate soils for more than 50 years, but the problems have been too large and diffuse to really deal with, Edén says. In the project to create general maps of the acid sulfate soils, GTK is investigating an area of altogether about 5 million hectares (50,000 square kilometres) before the end of When obvious non-risk areas have been excluded (rock, moraines, sands, etc.), profile samples are taken in the risk area, about one sample per square kilometre on an average. Åbo Akademi University and the University of Helsinki also participate in this work. Edén estimates that the area containing acid sulfate soils in Finland is more than the earlier estimated 300,000 hectares, the area depending on how the soils are classified. 14 Geofoorumi 2/2012

15 GTK investigates the largest area of acid sulfate soils in Europe. Peter Edén, GTK Finnish soil gets its own criteria The international criteria for acid sulfate soils were created for the tropics. According to them, acid sulfate soil has a ph below 4.0 and a sulfur content of more than 0.75 per cent. In Finland the surface waters are affected already when the ph is below 4.5 and a sulfur content of 0.2 per cent. That is why Finland is establishing its own criteria. Oxidized mineral soil or mud is considered acid sulfate soil if the ph is below 4.5, when measured directly at the sampling site. Potentially acid sulfate soil is in question if the sample contains sulfur 0.2 per cent or more in the form of sulfide and the ph drops below 4.0 when the sample is oxidized. Potential acid sulfate soils are risk classified in six classes, the most important criteria being the depth at which the sulfide layer starts. The greatest risk occurs when sulfide is close to the surface, thus risk class one implies that the sulfide layer starts at a depth of less than 1 metre. In class two the starting depth is metre, in class three metres, and in class four 2 3 metres. Class five indicates that the sulfide is completely oxidized to sulfate and class six that no sulfide is found down to a depth of 3 metres. Additional criteria for the classification are ph (four classes from below 3.5 to above 4.5) and total sulfur content (four classes from above 1.0 per cent to below 0.2 per cent). The flow of the acid soil water is controlled with a 180 cm tall plastic wall. The plastic wall prevents the acid soil water from flowing to the sides and directs the water flow through a flow regulation well. The installation is done with equipment attached to a drain digger. A FREQUENT PROBLEM IN THE TROPICS Internationally the occurrence and behaviour of acid sulfate soils has primarily been investigated in Australia, where the problem has a huge magnitude along the coasts and the rivers. According to Australian estimates, more than 75,000 square kilometres of coastal lands contain acid sulfate soils. In Australia the acute problems are of the same kind as in Finland: they occur when the land is taken into use and needs to be drained. The acid sulfate soils are investigated in every state of Australia and instructions are given on how to proceed when working in areas where the soil should not be exposed to air, Edén says. Acid sulfate soils frequently occur in the tropics, in regions not far from the Equator. Typically they are found in mangrove forests along seashores. In countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam and Thailand, problems with acid soils are well-known in regions where rice is grown. The international criteria for acid sulfate soils have originally been created for rice-cultivation areas, Edén says. In Europe the problem was first recognized in Holland quite naturally so, since part of the country is recently drained sea bed. On the shores of the Baltic Sea acid sulfate soils occur in the northern areas, where the land is rising, whereas the land in the southern area is sinking. Since the Swedish coast is steep, the risk area in Sweden is much smaller than in Finland. 2/2012 Geofoorumi 15

16 International activity M4D turns mineral resources into the drivers of development in poor countries Minerals for development, M4D, is a Finnish development cooperation model that aims to transfer best mining practices to developing countries. It is essential that countries with rich natural resources use this capital, often the only one they hold, to support growth and development as much as possible. TEXT Susanna Heikkinen Many poor or developing countries have rich mineral resources, but the economic benefits and other benefits for the regional development not to speak contribution to the technology and innovation the government and economy get from these resources is often unreasonably small. Merely exporting ore and concentrates has never made a country wealthy, so having value-added industries located close to the raw materials is crucial for economic development. It would be possible to break free from poverty if mineral resources could be better used as drivers of growth and development. On the initiative of GTK, Finland has begun development work for creat- ing an operational model in cooperation with ministries and organisations, such as the Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) and Finpro, for sustainable use of the mineral resources of developing countries. This Minerals for Development (M4D) model consists of an international network of the best knowledge centres in the field, including the World Bank, the United Nations Economic and Social Commissions, the Raw Materials Group from Sweden, and the South African Mintec. M4D will involve various modes of operation, such as research and development, problem analysis, guidance and training. GTK s International Relations Director Pentti Noras is the primary spokesperson for M4D. The idea has been tested on numerous occasions and it has been discussed at the meetings of the mining sector. There is international interest in and demand for this kind of work. Organisational and negotiation skills GTK has participated in development cooperation for decades and is currently working on over 10 export projects. At first, the projects concentrated on improving the preconditions for the operation of the surveys and especially on creating maps in order to improve the environment for investing. This did not, however, improve the national economy, because the target countries were not capable of organising their mining operations in a way that would produce national wealth during and after the mines life cycles, Noras says. Geological knowledge of mineral potential is naturally important, but in order to achieve the development objectives, we need to view the target country s situation from a wider perspective. Developing countries need more help in creating economic links, developing services and infrastructure and utilising the technologies and practices brought by investors in creating new industries, Noras explains. One of the most important aspects of managing natural resources is having negotiation skills. Developing countries lack negotiating power. International mining companies have specialised consults and lawyers, who prepare the contracts. The local authorities often have very little experience of negotiations and practically no information on what the contract is Value-added industries located close to the raw materials is crucial for economic development. 16 Geofoorumi 2/2012

17 about or how valuable their underground resources are, Noras states. Corruption and gaining personal benefit are also significant problems in many countries. Finland is respected as a mining expert Finland knows what it means to be a society dependent on natural resources. Our knowledge and skills are respected, because it is generally known that we have a high level of mining expertise. Together with Sweden, we have the world s leading machine, equipment and systems cluster that includes Outotec, Metso, Normet, Sandvik, etc. Closure of a mine and the environmental aspects related to it is one of our key areas of expertise. Our most important asset is, however, experience in good governance, Noras says. M4D is quickly becoming a brand in demand. Our part of the world has small countries that use their raw materials efficiently. They can afford to participate in development cooperation work without ulterior motives. Noras continues. Although Finland s infrastructure, technology and geological knowledge are among the best in the world, the terms on which citizens and government s property is transformed for mining companies has raised discussion. So far, the direct and indirect employment provided by mines has been considered more valuable. Using mining operations as the core of regional development, creating economic multiplying effects and taking care of environmental responsibilities could still be improved. Extractive operations that are separated from the society are not realising their entire potential. One more lesson from Finland to the developing countries: never create a mining boom because it would be followed by a shortage of (local) capital and professional work force and bungled licencing. Turning ideas into actions Making M4D work requires a wide network that gathers the necessary expertise and transfers solutions to the target Jukka Laukkanen, GTK Sampling of a REE deposit on Altai Mountains near Angirt River in Mongolia in August The sites are rough-grained granite pegmatite veins that cut through Palaeozoic schists. The samples are used in the enrichment studies of REE minerals. Russians made preliminary surveys of the deposit in the 1950s. The geologist in the centre, wearing a brimmed hat, is GTK s Research Scientist Tomi Maksimainen. In the back, wearing a white shirt, is GTK s geologist Akseli Torppa. The others are Mongolian partners from the Central Geological Laboratory (CGL). countries. GTK s professional expertise is focused on acquiring and distributing geological basic data, but we need more connections to actors with socialeconomic and development and political expertise. Despite all significant organisations backing up M4D, progress has been too slow. According to Noras, we need two things: organisation of the initiative and operationalising it. In practice, it would be easy, because the current Finnish development cooperation projects form a good basis. The Ministry of Employment and the Economy has a new plan of action that supports the development cooperation of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland. M4D would fit that plan perfectly. The ball is now in their court. 2/2012 Geofoorumi 17

18 Environmental impact Finland takes advanced steps in Arctic silviculture Raimo sutinen, GTK Spruce treeline in Sammaltunturi-Pallastunturi, Western Finnish Lapland, Europe. Modern research gives approaches for the results in forestry. The spruce and pine differ in demand on nutrients. TEXT Maya Sovijärvi In Finnish silviculture, the two most important tree species are the spruce and the pine. Their requirements are very different: the spruce is dependent on the correct nutrient composition of the soil. Calcium and magnesium are required, while too much aluminum can be toxic. The pine, on the other hand, cannot thrive if the moisture content of the soil is too high. In short, tells Senior Scientist Raimo Sutinen of GTK, this leads to the absence of pine from the forest succession in the fine-grained till of mid-lapland, and the absence of spruce from more nutrientpoor soils. The complete absence of pine in the forest succession in certain areas of Lapland has caused practical forest-management problems ever since forest-farming was first started in the fifties. In the six- ties, it was believed that this could be changed by aggressive silviculture practices, such as the plowing of the soil to create drier areas. However, follow-up research showed that this method had only a temporary effect: after six years the pine seedlings would start to die, and after some twenty-five years the effect on the soil disappeared entirely. Spruce is less affected by soil moisture. However, it too will not grow just anywhere: the forest line of the spruce is, perhaps surprisingly, not determined by climate, but by suitable, nutrient-rich soil. Due to this, spruce will not grow in eastand northeast Lapland. The physical qualities of the soil thus have an undeniable effect of what can be accomplished with silvicultural practices. The importance of Plowing of the soil showed that the method had only a temporary effect. knowledge and understanding of the soil composition for the successful cultivation of Finnish forests cannot be understated. The research into forest succession is both international and interdisciplinary. The geological circumstances of Finland and Canada, for example, have similarities due to similar effects of glaciers during the last Ice Age. This provides excellent common grounds for international collaboration. And while for example the moisture of the soil so crucial to pine can be determined by measuring gamma radiation (which is dampened by water), the knowledge of vegetation, of various plants and their growth areas is also crucial for the indirect mapping of various soil types. Modern ecological concerns have once again brought to the forefront the importance of this research. The plowing of forest, for example, was stopped by the Finnish government in 1996, largely due to ecological concerns. However, the research showing plowing to be fairly inefficient in any case, played a role. It is clear that, aside from helping to determine which methods of silviculture will yield the best economical results, the research done at GTK will continue to show the most efficient ways to take into account the ecological effects. 18 Geofoorumi 2/2012

19 New publications Geoscience for Society: 125th Anniversary Volume Nenonen, Keijo and Nurmi, Pekka A. (eds.) Geoscience for Society: 125th Anniversary Volume. Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper p. latest/publication/specialpaper49.html. Printed publication 40. Gold in Southern Finland: Results of GTK studies Grönholm, Sari & Kärkkäinen, Niilo (eds.) Gold in Southern Finland: Results of GTK studies Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper pages, 185 figures, 23 tables and 6 appendices. publication/specialpaper52.html. Printed publication 30. Mineral deposits and metallogeny of Fennoscandia Eilu, Pasi (ed.) Mineral deposits and metallogeny of Fennoscandia. Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper pages, 248 figures, 105 tables. Printed publication 40. Outokumpu Deep Drilling Project Kukkonen, Ilmo T. (ed.) Outokumpu Deep Drilling Project Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper pages, 127 figures, 40 tables and 2 appendices. fi/geoinfo/publications/latest/publication/specialpaper51. html. Printed publication 30. 3D modeling of polydeformed and metamorphosed rocks: the old Outokumpu Cu-Co-Zn mine area as a case study Laine, Eevaliisa D modeling of polydeformed and metamorphosed rocks: the old Outokumpu Cu-Co-Zn mine area as a case study. Geological Survey of Finland, Report of Investigation TR195.html (Electronic publication). Distribution of Elements in Terrestrial Mosses and the Organic Soil Layer in the Eastern Baltic Region Salminen, Reijo; Chekushin, Victor; Gilucis, Aivars; Gregorauskiene, Virgilija; Petersell, Valter & Tomilina, Olga Distribution of Elements in Terrestrial Mosses and the Organic Soil Layer in the Eastern Baltic Region. Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper pages, 4 figures, 6 tables and 82 appended maps. Printed publication 20. Guidelines and Procedures for Naming Precambrian Geological Units in Finland Edition Stratigraphic Commission of Finland: Precambrian Sub-Commission Strand, Kari; Köykkä, Juha & Kohonen, Jarmo (eds.) Guidelines and Procedures for Naming Precambrian Geological Units in Finland Edition Stratigraphic Commission of Finland: Precambrian Sub-Commission. Geological Survey of Finland, Guide pages, 6 figures and 1 table. (Electronic publication). The prehistory of Suomussalmi, eastern Finland; the first billion years as revealed by isotopes and the composition of granitoid suites Mikkola, Perttu The prehistory of Suomussalmi, eastern Finland; the first billion years as revealed by isotopes and the composition of granitoid suites. Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo. 24 pages, 2 figures, with original articles (I IV). Article dissertation. Printed publication 0. Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and palaeoenvironments in northern Karelia, NW Russia Putkinen, Niko Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and palaeoenvironments in northern Karelia, NW Russia. Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo. 21 pages, 4 figures, with original articles (I IV). Article dissertation. Printed publication 0. For publication orders and sales: 2/2012 Geofoorumi 19