Tectonic Uplift and Climate Change

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1 Tectonic Uplift and Climate Change Edited by William F. Ruddiman University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia Plenum Press New York and London

2 Contents Part I. Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction to the Uplift-Climate Connection William F. Ruddiman and Warren L. Prell 1. Introduction 3 2. Initial Uplift-Climate Hypotheses Physical Effects of Uplift on Climate Biogeochemical Effects of Uplift on Climate via CO Challenges to the Uplift-Climate Hypotheses Misinterpretations of the Extent of True (Surface) Uplift Interpretation of Chemical Weathering Proxies Lack of Negative Feedback in the Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis Outline of the Volume Uplift Histories: True Surface Uplift versus Isostatic Rebound New General Circulation Modeling Opportunities Physical and Chemical Weathering 14 References 15 Part II. Evidence of Cenozoic Uplift Chapter 2 The When and Where of the Growth of the Himalaya and the Tibetan Plateau Peter Copeland 1. Introduction Major Structures in the Himalaya and the Southern Tibetan Plateau Indirect Methods of Assessing Tectonism Relations between Tectonics and Climate 33 References 36 xi

3 xii CONTENTS Chapter 3 Variability in Age of Initial Shortening and Uplift in the Central Andes, 'S Teresa E. Jordan, James H. Reynolds III, and Johan P. Erikson 1. Introduction Oligocene Crustal Thickness and Neogene Uplift History Region 1: Altiplano-Eastern Cordillera-Sub-Andean Zone (16-23 S) Region 2: Maricunga Belt-Puna-Eastern Cordillera-Santa Barbara System (23-28 S) Region 3: Flat-Slab Region: Frontal Cordillera-Pre-Cordillera- Sierras Pampeanas ( 'S) Region 4: Principal Cordillera-Frontal Cordillera- Pre-Cordillera (31 3O'-33 3O'S) Conclusions 56 References 59 Chapter 4 Late Neogene Uplift in Eastern and Southern Africa and its Paleoclimatic Implications Timothy C. Partridge 1. Introduction: Plate Tectonic Setting Regional Tectonic Responses East Africa Uplift and Volcanism Climatic Effects of Uplift Southern Africa The Interplay between Tectonism and Climate during the Cenozojc Late Neogene Climatic Responses Conclusions 83 References 84 Part III. General Circulation Model Studies of Uplift Effects on Climate Chapter 5 Mountains and Midlatitude Aridity Anthony J. Broccoli and Syukuro Manabe 1. Introduction Distribution of Arid Climates Review of Previous Climate Modeling Work 91

4 CONTENTS xiii 4. Model Description Experimental Design Simulated Distribution of Dry Climates Large-Scale Atmospheric Circulation Winter Summer Water Vapor Transport Role of Soil Moisture Feedback Paleoclimatic Implications Summary and Concluding Remarks 118 References 120 Chapter 6 The Effects of Uplift on Ocean-Atmosphere Circulation David Rind, Gary Russell, and William F. Ruddiman 1. Introduction Previous Modeling Studies Model and Experimental Procedure Results Atmospheric Changes Oceanic Changes Climate Changes Discussion Transient versus Equilibrium Response Comparison with Previous Modeling Studies Relevance for the Cenozoic Relationship to the Cenozoic Climatic Decline Conclusions 145 References 147 Chapter 7 Possible Effects of Cenozoic Uplift and CO 2 Lowering on Global and Regional Hydrology John E. Kutzbach, William F. Ruddiman, and Warren L. Prell 1. Introduction Simulations Orography Changes Orography and CO 2 Changes Models Results Global and Latitudinal-Average Changes Regional Changes 157

5 xiv CONTENTS 3.3. Changes in Frequency of Extreme Precipitation and Runoff Events Changes in Freshwater Flux to the Oceans Discussion 164 References 169 Chapter 8 The Impact of Tibet-Himalayan Elevation on the Sensitivity of the Monsoon Climate System to Changes in Solar Radiation Warren L. Prell and John E. Kutzbach 1. Introduction Elevation-Radiation Experiments Climate Responses to Changes in Elevation and Radiation Surface Temperature Precipitation Runoff Sensitivity of the Monsoon Hydrologic Cycles to Elevation Change Estimates of Monsoon Variability and Evolution Equilibrium Sensitivity Coefficient Model for Monsoon Runoff Radiation and Elevation Forcing Time Series Simulations of Monsoon Evolution and Variability Simulations for Uplift-Monsoon Interactions Implications for Monsoonal Runoff Patterns Associations among Surface Uplift, Monsoonal Runoff, Weathering, Sediment Transport, and Sea-Level Changes Summary 200 References 200 Chapter 9 Testing the Climatic Effects of Orography and CO 2 with General Circulation and Biome Models William F. Ruddiman, John E. Kutzbach, and I. Colin Prentice 1. Introduction Review of Models Biome Model General Circulation Model (CCM1) Experimental Design Combined Use of Biome and CCM1 Models Boundary Conditions for Sensitivity Tests Paleobotanical Data and Biome Model Simulations 209

6 CONTENTS xv 4. GCM Results: Simulated Climate Changes Temperature Changes Precipitation and Surface Wetness Changes Biome Model Results: Simulated Vegetation Changes Southward Biome Shifts in High Northern Latitudes Intensified Moisture Contrasts in Southern Asia Drier Biomes in Interior North America and Asia Comparison of Biomes with Paleobotanical Data High Northern Latitudes Southern Asia Interior North America and Asia Summary 231 References 233 Part IV. Geological and Geochemical Evidence of Uplift Effects on Weathering and CO 2 Chapter 10 Fluvial Sediment Discharge to the Sea and the Importance of Regional Tectonics John D. Milliman 1. Introduction Factors Affecting Suspended Sediment Discharge Topography and Tectonics Basin Area Precipitation Geology Human Activity Some Cautions Factors Affecting Dissolved Sediment Discharge Tectonic Effects on the Sedimentary Record Summary 255 References 256 Chapter 11 The Effect of Late Cenozoic Glaciation and Tectonic Uplift on Silicate Weathering Rates and the Marine 87 Sr/ 86 Sr Record Joel D. Blum 1. Introduction Description of the Wind River Mountains Soil Chronosequence 261

7 xvi CONTENTS 1.2. Sample Collection and Analysis Results Relation between Weathering Rates and Soil Age Relation between 87 Sr/ 86 Sr Released by Weathering and Soil Age Discussion Silicate versus Carbonate Weathering Power-Law Relation between Soil Age and Weathering Rates Application of Chronosequence Studies to Global Weathering Implications of Chronosequence Studies for the Marine 87 Sr/ 86 Sr Record Tectonic Uplift and Silicate Weathering Rates Areas for Further Research 285 References 286 Chapter 12 Himalayan Weathering and Erosion Fluxes: Climate and Tectonic Controls Louis A. Derry and Christian France-Lanord 1. Introduction Sediments as the Record of Erosion and Weathering The Bengal Fan Nd and Sr Isotopic Constraints on Sediment Provenance Sedimentary Constraints on Early Miocene Himalayan Elevations <5 18 O and dd Constraints on Weathering Processes (5 13 C Constraints on the Weathering Paleoenvironment Weathering Environments and 87 Sr/ 86 Sr of Himalayan Rivers A Model for Neogene Weathering Processes in the Himalaya Conclusion 309 References 310 Chapter 13 Late Cenozoic Vegetation Change, Atmospheric CO 2, and Tectonics Thure E. Ceding 1. Introduction Characteristics of Terrestrial Plants and Ecosystems C 3 Pathway C 4 Pathway CAM Plants 316

8 CONTENTS xvii 2.4. Soils: <5 13 C and <5 18 O Diet Global Observations Indian Subcontinent East Africa South America North America Western Europe Global Summary Global Change in the Neogene: Changes in Atmospheric CO 2? Relation to the Late Neogene 6 Carbon Isotope Shift in the Ocean Summary 325 References 325 Chapter 14 Chemical Weathering Yields from Basement and Orogenic Terrains in Hot and Cold Climates John M. Edmond and Youngsook Huh 1. Introduction Some Strategic Considerations The Existing Data Set Basement Terrains The Continental Arc of the Western Americas, 15 S-70 N The Himalayan Collision Zone Conclusions 349 References 350 Chapter 15 Silicate Weathering and Climate Robert A. Berner and Elizabeth K. Berner 1. Introduction Silicate Weathering Rate on the Present Earth Studies of River Water Chemistry Studies of Clay Weathering Products Experimental Studies Silicate Weathering Over Geologic Time: Climate, Tectonics, and Evolution Conclusions 364 References 364

9 xviii CONTENTS Chapter 16 Carbon Cycle Models How Strong Are the Constraints? Maureen E. Raymo 1. Introduction Background Mass Balance Constraints Sensitivity Tests Rate of Sedimentary Cycling (J er ) River Isotopic Value (<5 riv ) Mean Isotopic Composition of Sedimentary Carbonate Reservoir (<5 aye ) Mean Isotope Fractionation between Carbonate and OM Being Buried (AS) Mean Isotope Fractionation between Carbonate and OM Being Eroded (AE) Discussion 379 References 380 Chapter 17 Os Isotope Record in a Cenozoic Deep-Sea Core: Its Relation to Global Tectonics and Climate Karl K. Turekian and William J. Pegram 1. Introduction Methods and Results Discussion The Relation of 87 Sr/ 86 Sr to 187 Os/ 186 Os The Relation of 3 He Concentration and 187 Os/ 186 Os Oxygen Isotopes, 187 Os/ 186 Os, and 3 He Concentration Correlations Summary 395 References 396 Chapter 18 Global Chemical Erosion during the Cenozoic: Weatherability Balances the Budgets Lee R. Kump and Michael A. Arthur 1. Introduction Description of the Model Present-Day Steady State Flux Relationships Calculating Steady States 409

10 CONTENTS xix 3. Results Organic and Carbonate C Deposition Riverine Sr Isotopic Composition Implications for Cenozoic Oceans and Climate Carbonate Partitioning and the CCD Sr Mass Balance and Sr/Ca Ratios Atmospheric pco General Implications for the Relationship between Tectonics and Climate 419 References 424 Chapter 19 The Marine '"Sr/^Sr and d l8 O Records, Himalayan Alkalinity Fluxes and Cenozoic Climate Models Sean E. McCauley and Donald J. DePaolo 1. Introduction The Cenozoic Records Oxygen Isotopes Strontium Isotopes Seafloor Generation Rates Deconstructing Blag Structure Recasting the BLAG Models BLAG versus Cenozoic Paleotemperatures Quantifying the Raymo Hypothesis The Marine Strontium Isotope Record and Himalayan Alkalinity Fluxes Comparison of the Strontium Mass-Balance Results with the Oxygen Isotope Record Modern Alkalinity Fluxes from Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau Rivers Estimating Paleoalkalinity Fluxes from Bengal Fan Sediments Impact of Himalayan Alkalinity Fluxes on Atmospheric CO 2 : An Ocean Chemical Model Discussion Cenozoic Alkalinity Fluxes Surface/Deep Ocean Disequilibrium Heterogeneous Buffering Mechanisms Other Considerations Conclusion 464 References 465

11 xx CONTENTS Part V. Synthesis Chapter 20 The Uplift-Climate Connection: A Synthesis William F. Ruddiman, Maureen E. Raymo, Warren L. Prell, and John E. Kutzbach 1. Introduction Cenozoic Uplift Cenozoic Uplift Created Most Modern High-Elevation Terrain Modern Orography Is Unusually High Compared to Geologic History Effects of Cenozoic Uplift on Circulation and Climate Uplift Has Cooled Midlatitude Plateau Regions Uplift Has Increased Meandering of the Standing Waves Uplift Has Increased Orographic Precipitation Uplift Has Increased Seasonal, Orbital, and Flood-Event Precipitation Uplift Has Caused Drying of Midlatitude Continental Interiors Effects of Uplift on Physical and Chemical Weathering Cenozoic Uplift Has Increased Physical Weathering in Orogenic Belts Cenozoic Uplift Has Increased Global Physical Weathering Cenozoic Uplift Has Increased Chemical Weathering in Orogenic Belts Effects of Uplift-Driven Changes in CO 2 and Climate Uplift-Driven Chemical Weathering Has Lowered CO 2 Levels Uplift-Driven CO 2 Cooling and Drying Climatic Feedbacks Driven by Decreasing CO Hypotheses of Cenozoic Climate Change Summary of Updated Uplift-Climate Hypothesis Other Sources of Cenozoic Climate Forcing Ongoing Issues 509 References 511 Index 517

Tectonic Uplift and Climate Change

Tectonic Uplift and Climate Change Tectonic Uplift and Climate Change Edited by William F. Ruddiman University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia Springer Science+Business Media, LLC Library of Congress