Thursday, 12 November Das Erdinnere II
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1 4- Das Erdinnere II
2 Examples of seismic waves PcP PKiKP P PP PKP PKIKP FOCUS inner core outer core mantle ScS SKIKS S SKS SS P-wave S-wave Seismic wave paths of some important refracted and reflected P- wave and S-wave phases from an earthquake with focus at the Earth s surface.
3 3 SKS SKIKS PKP Travel-time, t (min) 2 1 ScS PcP S PKiKP PKIKP diffracted P PKIKP P core shadow-zone for direct P-waves core shadow-zone for direct S-waves Epicentral distance, ( ) Travel-time versus epicentral distance (t ) curves for some important seismic phases (modified from Jeffreys and Bullen, 194)
4 Fault plane solution D C Compression Ground surface Secondary plane H Dilatation Dilatation Fault plane Compression
5 Fault plane solution Sensor C 1 st peak upwards Fault plane Dilatation Compression Epicenter Sensor D 1 st peak downwards Compression Dilatation Secondary plane
6 Fault plane solution (a) focal sphere N P 1 H P 2 faultplane S 2 S 1 P 1 P 2 P T (b) first motions (c) focal mechanism Method of determining the focal mechanism of an earthquake. (a) The focal sphere surrounding the earthquake focus, with two rays S1 and S2 that cut the sphere at P1 and P2, respectively. (b) The points P1 and P2 are plotted on a lowerhemisphere stereogram as first-motion pushes (solid points) or tugs (open points). (c) The best-fitting great circles define regions of compression (shaded) and tension (unshaded). The P- and T-axes are located on the bisectors of the angles between the fault-plane and auxiliary plane.
7 Fault plane solution (a) normal fault ' 3 ' 1 P T The different types of fault plane solution (b) reverse fault ' 1 ' 3 T P (c) strike slip fault ' 1 ' 3 T P
8 Example of Fault plane solution: Atlantic ridge 75 N 6 N 6 W 4 W 2 W April September May N 6 N Fault-plane solutions for earthquakes along the Mid- Atlantic Ridge, showing the prevalence of extensional tectonics with normal faulting in the axial zone of the spreading center (based on data from Huang et al., 1986). 4 N 2 N June (1) November June May April January June January June June (2) June W 4 W 2 W 4 N 2 N Romanche fault
9 Example of Fault plane solution: Romanche fault motion of African plate ST. PAUL ROMANCHE CHAIN motion of American plate Fault-plane solutions for earthquakes on the St. Paul, Romanche and Chain transform faults in the Central Atlantic ocean (after Engeln et al., 1986). Most focal mechanisms show right lateral (dextral) motions on these faults, corresponding to the relative motion between the African and American plates.
10 Example of Fault plane solution no relative motion inactive fracture zone, negligible seismicity normal fault ridge dextral transform fault shallow reverse fault oceanic plate subduction zone continental plate oblique normal fault sinistral transform fault steep reverse fault Fault-plane solutions for hypothetical earthquakes at an ocean ridge and transform fault system. Note that the sense of movement on the fault is not given by the apparent offset of the ridge. The focal mechanisms of earthquakes on the transform fault reflect the relative motion between the plates. Note that in this and similar figures the sector with compressional first motions is shaded.
11 Examples of seismic waves PcP PKiKP P PP PKP PKIKP FOCUS inner core outer core mantle ScS SKIKS S SKS SS P-wave S-wave Seismic wave paths of some important refracted and reflected P- wave and S-wave phases from an earthquake with focus at the Earth s surface.
12 Simple model of the earth Seismic reflection & refraction Crust Surface outcrop Mantle Core Drillholes (up to ~2 km) Gravity, magnetics, heat flow dimishing resolution center of Earth (6375 km) Earthquakes Seismic Waves (penetrate entire Earth) Magma (fro up to ~2 km)
13 Seismic velocities model for the Earth 1 Body-wave velocity (km s ) 5 1 V S V P crust upper mantle 2 lower mantle Depth (km) outer core inner core
14 Relation Seismic waves - density Birch s law (1964).2 GPa.6 GPa 1. GPa extended Birch s law Vp Velocity (km.s -1 ) Vp Vs Vp Vs Velocity (km.s -1 ) Vs Density (g.cm -3 ) V=aρ+b where a & b are parameters characterizing the rocks and V & ρ are respectively the seismic velocity and the density of the rocks Density (g.cm -3 ) Ludwig et al., 197
15 Simple model of the earth Density differentiation due to changes in chemical composition 3-3 t/m t/m 3 Silicates Crust Mantle 5.8 t/m 3 Core Silicates rich in Fe & Mg Iron 1.8 t/m 3
16 Density-pressure inside the Earth 15 Radius (km) Radius (km) Density (1 kg m ) 1 5 mantle outer core inner core 2 Gravity (m s ) 5 mantle outer core inner core Pressure (GPa) Depth (km) Depth (km)
17 Physical state due to increasing T and P with Depth Crust Solid Hard solid Outer Core Hard solid 29 km 1-2 km 65-7 km increasing T & P Solid 51 km upper mantle Lithosphere Liquid Inner Core Lower mantle Asthenosphere
18 Isothermen in der Erde Real geotherm 1 4 km 67 km 13 GPa 24 GPa Mantle km 135 GPa outer core km 329 GPa inner core Lithosphere Asthenosphere Geotherm if the heat tranfer is only due to the conduction
19 Model of the Earth LITHOSPHERE 1 15 km thick Depth (km) CONTINENT 2891 Crust 38 4 km thick UPPER MANTLE Crust 6 8 km thick MESOSPHERE (LOWER MANTLE) semi-solid, plastic OCEAN LITHOSPHERE 7 1 km thick ASTHENOSPHERE partially molten phase transition spinel > oxides, perovskite phase transition olivine > spinel OUTER CORE fluid 515 CORE 6371
20 Description of the Earth: the crust LITHOSPHERE 1 15 km thick Depth (km) 2891 CONTINENT Crust 38 4 km thick 515 UPPER MANTLE CORE 6371 Crust 6 8 km thick MESOSPHERE (LOWER MANTLE) semi-solid, plastic OUTER CORE fluid OCEAN LITHOSPHERE 7 1 km thick ASTHENOSPHERE partially molten phase transition spinel > oxides, perovskite phase transition olivine > spinel Oceanic crust:.99% of Earth's mass; depth of -1 kilometers The oceanic crust contains.147% of the mantle-crust mass. The majority of the Earth's crust was made through volcanic activity. The oceanic ridge system, a 4,-kilometer network of volcanoes, generates new oceanic crust at the rate of 17 km 3 per year, covering the ocean floor with basalt. Hawaii and Iceland are two examples of the accumulation of basalt piles. Continental crust:.374% of Earth's mass; depth of -5 kilometers. The continental crust contains.554% of the mantle-crust mass. This is the outer part of the Earth composed essentially of crystalline rocks. These are low-density buoyant minerals dominated mostly by quartz (SiO2) and feldspars (metal-poor silicates). The crust (both oceanic and continental) is the surface of the Earth; as such, it is the coldest part of our planet. Because cold rocks deform slowly, we refer to this outer shell as the lithosphere (the rocky or strong layer).
21 Depth (km) Description of the Earth: the crust 5 1 P-wave velocity (km s 1) Generalized petrological model and P-wave velocity depth profile for oceanic crust ocean bottom ocean crust ~ 7 km thick Moho 15 top of basement Depth (km) oceanic sediments Layer 2 basalt Layer 3 gabbro ultramafics Generalized petrological model and P-wave velocity depth profile for continental crust near-surface low-velocity layer 1 Layer 1 upper mantle P-wave velocity (km s 1) sea water Cenozoic sediments Mesozoic & Paleozoic sediments 2 Conrad laminations 3 Moho zone of positive velocity gradient sialic low-velocity layer middle crustal layer upper crystalline basement granitic laccoliths migmatites high-velocity tooth amphibolites lower crustal layer granulites uppermost mantle ultramafics
22 Description of the Earth: the upper mantle LITHOSPHERE 1 15 km thick Depth (km) CONTINENT 2891 Crust 38 4 km thick UPPER MANTLE Crust 6 8 km thick MESOSPHERE (LOWER MANTLE) semi-solid, plastic OUTER CORE fluid OCEAN LITHOSPHERE 7 1 km thick ASTHENOSPHERE partially molten phase transition spinel > oxides, perovskite phase transition olivine > spinel Upper mantle: 1.3% of Earth's mass; depth of 1-4 kilometers The upper mantle contains 15.3% of the mantle-crust mass. Fragments have been excavated for our observation by eroded mountain belts and volcanic eruptions. Olivine (Mg,Fe) 2SiO4 and pyroxene (Mg,Fe)SiO3 have been the primary minerals found in this way. These and other minerals are refractory and crystalline at high temperatures; therefore, most settle out of rising magma, either forming new crustal material or never leaving the mantle. Part of the upper mantle called the asthenosphere might be partially molten. 515 CORE 6371
23 Description of the Earth: the upper mantle P-wave velocity (km s 1 ) crust Epicentral distance, ( ) lid 2 low-velocity layer Depth (km) km discontinuity 4 km discontinuity lower mantle upper mantle
24 Description of the Earth: the upper mantle Mineral Composition 2
25 Description of the Earth: the upper mantle Phase Transformation Olivine undergoes pressure dependent transformation to the spinel structure (Ringwoodite), and then breaks down to Perovskovite. The transformations correlate with the major seismic discontinuities, and probably generate part of the Signal.
26 Description of the Earth: the upper mantle Olivine Phases (Mg,Fe) 2 SiO 4 = (Mg,Fe) 2 SiO 4 Olivine Wadsleyite Pressure GPa 41 km. (Mg,Fe) 2 SiO 4 = (Mg,Fe) 2 SiO 4 Wadsleyite Ringwoodite Pressure 18 GPa. 52 km. (Mg,Fe) 2 SiO 4 = (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 + (Mg,Fe)O Ringwoodite Peroskovite Magnesiowüstite Pressure 23 GPa. 66 km.
27 Description of the Earth: the upper mantle 6 Perovskite (Pv) + Magnesiowüstite (Mw) Mineralogy of the mantle: influence of the chemical composition Pressure (GPa) Pv + Mw Pv + Mw + St 2 Magnesiowüstite (Mw) + Stishovite (St) Phase ( ) + Mw + St 6 + Spinel ( ) Olivine ( ) Mg 2 SiO 4 Composition Fe 2 SiO 4
28 Description of the Earth: transition zone LITHOSPHERE 1 15 km thick Depth (km) CONTINENT 2891 Crust 38 4 km thick UPPER MANTLE Crust 6 8 km thick MESOSPHERE (LOWER MANTLE) semi-solid, plastic OUTER CORE fluid OCEAN LITHOSPHERE 7 1 km thick ASTHENOSPHERE partially molten phase transition spinel > oxides, perovskite phase transition olivine > spinel Transition region: 7.5% of Earth's mass; depth of 4-65 kilometers The transition region or mesosphere (for middle mantle), sometimes called the fertile layer, contains 11.1% of the mantle-crust mass and is the source of basaltic magmas. It also contains calcium, aluminum, and garnet, which is a complex aluminum-bearing silicate mineral. This layer is dense when cold because of the garnet. It is buoyant when hot because these minerals melt easily to form basalt which can then rise through the upper layers as magma. 515 CORE 6371
29 Description of the Earth: transition zone Pyroxene - Garnet Phases Transformation of non-olivine components are also important (3%). This phase changes are gradual and lead to changes of slope of velocity. Pyroxene starts to dissolve into the garnet Structure at 35-5 km. At about 58 km CaSiO 3 perovskovite Exsolves from garnet.
30 Description of the Earth: the lower mantle LITHOSPHERE 1 15 km thick Depth (km) CONTINENT 2891 Crust 38 4 km thick 515 UPPER MANTLE CORE 6371 Crust 6 8 km thick MESOSPHERE (LOWER MANTLE) semi-solid, plastic OUTER CORE fluid OCEAN LITHOSPHERE 7 1 km thick ASTHENOSPHERE partially molten phase transition spinel > oxides, perovskite phase transition olivine > spinel Lower mantle: 49.2% of Earth's mass; depth of kilometers The lower mantle contains 72.9% of the mantle-crust mass and is probably composed mainly of silicon, magnesium, and oxygen. It probably also contains some iron, calcium, and aluminum. Scientists make these deductions by assuming the Earth has a similar abundance and proportion of cosmic elements as found in the Sun and primitive meteorites. D": 3% of Earth's mass; depth of kilometers This layer is 2 to 3 kilometers (125 to 188 miles) thick and represents about 4% of the mantlecrust mass. Although it is often identified as part of the lower mantle, seismic discontinuities suggest the D" layer might differ chemically from the lower mantle lying above it. Scientists theorize that the material either dissolved in the core, or was able to sink through the mantle but not into the core because of its density.
31 Description of the Earth: the outer core LITHOSPHERE 1 15 km thick Depth (km) CONTINENT 2891 Crust 38 4 km thick 515 UPPER MANTLE CORE Crust 6 8 km thick MESOSPHERE (LOWER MANTLE) semi-solid, plastic OUTER CORE fluid OCEAN LITHOSPHERE 7 1 km thick ASTHENOSPHERE partially molten phase transition spinel > oxides, perovskite phase transition olivine > spinel Outer core: 3.8% of Earth's mass; depth of 2,89-5,15 kilometers The outer core is a hot, electrically conducting liquid within which convective motion occurs. This conductive layer combines with Earth's rotation to create a dynamo effect that maintains a system of electrical currents known as the Earth's magnetic field. It is also responsible for the subtle jerking of Earth's rotation. This layer is not as dense as pure molten iron, which indicates the presence of lighter elements. Scientists suspect that about 1% of the layer is composed of sulfur and/or oxygen because these elements are abundant in the cosmos and dissolve readily in molten iron. 6371
32 Description of the Earth: the inner core LITHOSPHERE 1 15 km thick Depth (km) CONTINENT 2891 Crust 38 4 km thick UPPER MANTLE Crust 6 8 km thick MESOSPHERE (LOWER MANTLE) semi-solid, plastic OCEAN LITHOSPHERE 7 1 km thick ASTHENOSPHERE partially molten phase transition spinel > oxides, perovskite phase transition olivine > spinel Inner core: 1.7% of the Earth's mass; depth of 5,15-6,37 kilometers The inner core is solid and unattached to the mantle, suspended in the molten outer core. It is believed to have solidified as a result of pressurefreezing which occurs to most liquids when temperature decreases or pressure increases. OUTER CORE fluid 515 CORE 6371
33 Comparison of the different planets The internal structure of the terrestrial planets are similar. They all have Core High density metal Mantle Medium density rocky materials, such as silica (SiO2), hot, semi-solid Crust lowest density rocks, such as granite and basalt (black lava rock ) The layering of different density materials occurs due to differentiation heavy materials sink to the bottom while lighter material rise to the top Lithosphere: The coolest and most layer of rock near a planet s surface. Molten lava of Earth exists at a very narrow region beneath the lithosphere
34 A nother view of the Earth
35 Origin of the Geoid : density anomalies Geoid over India Seismic tomography in the mantle Blue=low gravity Red = high gravity Blue= cold = more dense Red = hot = less dense It is very clear that long wavelength Geoid lows are associated to cold and dense material in the mantle. Therefore : Long wavelength Geoid = density anomalies in the mantle short wavelength Geoid = surface topography (i.e. mountains)
36 Summary of the structure of the Earth Tiefe km 1 2 Spinell Granat Kontinentale Rift Zone Lithosphäre Asthenosphäre Mittelozeanischer Rücken Ozean. Insel Aktiver Kontinentalrand Kruste 3,5 7, 1 C Basalt Spinell- Peridotit 3 4 Grenat + Pyroxen Majorit Olivin Spinell Phase Oberer Mantel Subduktion Phasen-Übergang 13 Granat- Peridotit 5 6 Druck GPa Temperatur 7 Spinell Phase Perowskit + Magnesiowüstit Phasen-Übergang 24 2 C Post-Perowskit Eisen+ Nickel + geringe Anteile leichterer Elemente Unterer Mantel Kern Phasen-Übergang flüssig fest verändert nach STOSCH (22) 4 C
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