Project Document. BASE - Basement fracturing and weathering on- and offshore Norway Genesis, age, and landscape development

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1 Project Document BASE - Basement fracturing and weathering on- and offshore Norway Genesis, age, and landscape development Partners: Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), SINTEF Petroleum Research (SINTEF) Research Period: (4 years)

2 Objectives The main objective is improved knowledge of the genesis, age and landscape development of fractured and weathered basement on- and offshore Norway. We will address a number of key risk elements pertaining to the exploration for hydrocarbons in weathered and fractured basement; i) TASK A: Analysis of the spatial and temporal evolution of the fracturing history of selected basement blocks and correlation with weathering processes onshore to provide reliable conceptual templates for an improved understanding of offshore fracturing and saprolite genesis. ii) TASK B: Testing of the potential and limitations of mapping offshore deep weathering/fractured basement systems with geophysics. Mathematical modelling of hydrocarbon migration behaviour in weathered and fractured basement, using structural geological and petrophysical information determined onshore. Frontiers of knowledge and technology Recent oil discoveries in weathered and fractured basement off SW Norway, demand new research efforts on how Mesozoic climate, and late Cenozoic uplift and denudation have effected fracturing and weathering of the crystalline basement. Up to date, it is still poorly understood how these different forcing factors interact with each other, and their relative importance remains unclear. This lack of understanding makes it difficult to locate and estimate systematically the amount of fracturingweathering in poorly accessible basement, such as in the offshore domain. Recent projects (e.g. TWIN, Olesen et al. 2012) have shown that geophysical methods such as magnetics, gravity, seismic and resistivity profiling are generally capable of mapping and characterising fractured basement and its deep genetically linked weathering. However, due to the little direct economic potential of such basement structures in the past, existing data were barely explored to gain better knowledge and to develop universally valid mapping techniques. The under-exploration of these plays is unfortunate since a considerable amount of oil is (and will be) produced from basement with enhanced secondary porosity. Indeed, a large number of wells, which were drilled into the basement along Norwegian continental margin, are reported to show weathering and/or fracturing. Fractured basement is definitely both a blessing and a curse for exploration. For reservoirs, where underlying basement is supposed to act as the bottom seal, fracturing within the basement might act as migration paths, causing a leaking out of the reservoir into the basement. Here possible changes in differential stress with depth are discussed to cause downward migration and the accumulation of hydrocarbons in the basement. Better conceptual understanding and detailed mapping of fractures in the basement are therefore important for risk reduction before drilling. Research tasks Improved assessment of risks to potential basement reservoirs will be allowed by the following two research tasks: 1) Improved chronological constraints and quantitative understanding of key processes, which trigger, maintain and provide positive feedback between fracturing, faulting, and weathering. 2) Potential to map carrier units and model possible secondary HC migration systems in weathered and/or fractured basement. A crucial momentum for the project will be the establishment of a new K-Ar dating facility at NGU to provide the essential constraints on the timing of brittle fault and weathering processes.

3 TASK A: Onshore weathered and fractured bedrock systems (NGU) Basement weathering is quite widespread in Norway and commonly thought to be related to (sub-) tropical conditions during the Mesozoic ( clay weathering ) or cool climate conditions during the Plio-Pleistocene ( grus weathering ). Although extensive onshore exhumation during uplift and erosion prevailed in the late Cenozoic, there are still pockets of preserved deep weathering, in particular within extensively faulted and fractured basement blocks. Brittle deformation features in exhumed basements are key in controlling the extent of weathering due to the positive feedback that exists between the formation (and continued reactivation) of faults and fractures and the circulation of fluids that have the potential to enhance the lateral and vertical propagation of weathering fronts. The mapping and analysis of basement weathering in combination with a thorough understanding of the spatial evolution of faults and fractures will provide key information as to the formation mechanisms and characteristics of important unconventional oil reservoirs. (1) The geomorphology of weathered landscapes: A landscape characterized by deep weathering shows surprisingly large topographic relief on micro- to meso scale but is flat on a regional scale. If denudational processes are allowed to continue with hillslope retreat and fluvial incision, the local relief will become gentler over time and the landscape can be said to be mature. However, the interaction between deep weathering, exhumation and hillslope retreat is complicated and it is not clear which of these processes have controlled the landscape evolution on- and offshore Scandinavia. To better understand this we need to map and characterize landscapes normally thought to be of weathering origin and deduce the dominating landscape forming agents. Detailed geomorphological understanding is important because saprolite is heterogeneously distributed in the locally hilly weathering landscape. Whether an exploration well will encounter saprolite or not will thus depend on where drilling is made in the basement landscape. (2) Spatial and temporal evolution of the brittle deformation history of weathered basement: Brittle fault and fracture accumulation through time can play a crucial role in controlling patterns of weathering of exhumed basement blocks. Establishment of a conceptual structural template for the evolution of brittle deformational features that are exposed on onshore weathered basement blocks will generate a powerful tool for the interpretation of offshore fractured basement blocks as imaged by geophysical techniques. Further, direct isotopic dating of structurally wellcharacterised brittle faults and fractures will lead to the refined understanding of the brittle development of fractured basement blocks in time and, indirectly, will allow establishing a robust conceptual link between brittle deformation and weathering processes. (3) Saprolite genesis and characteristics through time: Saprolite remnants onshore Scandinavia have been investigated only sporadically during the last thirty years. The nature and age of the deeply weathered material thus remains only loosely constrained. The type and degree of weathering of in situ weathered soils are indicative of the environmental conditions during their formation. When the external forcing changes, properties related to previous weathering conditions are usually preserved for example in stable clay assemblages. By constraining the age and rate of weathering onshore and by dating isotopically selected faults found to be intimately linked to weathered basement blocks, the influence of climate development, brittle deformation and landscape processes on weathering can be quantified. (4) Tectonic and climatic boundary conditions for saprolite formation and denudation: While remnants of deep weathering structures are preserved on the Norwegian mainland today, vast areas were covered by saprolites prior to major late Cenozoic uplift episodes. Saprolitic material may have been eroded and preserved along the Norwegian continental margin between the mid- Miocene and early Pliocene. The Molo Formation, deposited by coastal propagation as a result of compression and uplift of the Norwegian mainland, may provide an opportunity to study saprolitic material eroded from the mainland. It is interpreted to be the proximal equivalent of the deeper marine Kai Formation in the Norwegian Sea and a lateral equivalent of the Utsira Formation in the North Sea. By studying both the remnants (onshore) and erosional products (offshore) deposited during periods of extreme changes of climate and tectonic boundary

4 conditions (Miocene-Pliocene), new inferences on the age of denudation, on the controlling mechanisms, and on the relevance of deep weathering on Late Cenozoic global cooling can be drawn. TASK B: Offshore weathered and fractured bedrock systems (SINTEF) Basement is commonly considered to be an impermeable part of the petroleum system, but this assumption does not hold for weathered and fractured bedrock. Even though weathering and fracturing are common features of bedrock, their characterisation is still an underexplored and challenging issue, and this is one of the reasons that the understanding of bedrock petroleum systems is limited. The aim of this module is to use improved descriptions of bedrock systems in mathematical hydrocarbon flow simulations. (1) Imaging of weathered and fractured bedrock: We will test the capability to map and quantify deep weathering and/or fractured basement and study the phenomena on selected basement highs on the Norwegian continental shelf, using gravity, magnetic and seismic data in a joint interpretation workflow. High-resolution seismic data are probably the first choice for mapping a complex system of fracturing and weathering within the upper basement, but the interpretation is, depending on the data quality, difficult and rather unsure. A joint interpretation of different data sets can contribute to an improved and more reliable interpretation (AMAGER method, Olesen et al. 2007, Brönner et al. 2010). It is well known that fracturing and weathering of basement rocks cause changes in the rock resistivity (Brönner et al. 2010), density and magnetisation. Gravity and magnetic data are sensitive to lateral changes in density and magnetization. Depending on the size and depth of these low magnetization/low density features and the resolution of the potential field data, these methods can be beneficial to give a first indication whether fractured basement exist and provide a fast mapping of the principal structures. However, little knowledge is available about the potential and limitations of such data applications. The mapping of such a system also provides valuable structural information, giving a link to paleo-stress fields and allows a correlation with onshore observations. These issues will be investigated here. (2) Fluid flow modelling through weathered and fractured bedrock: We will develop mathematical models for hydrocarbon migration through weathered and fractured bedrock at basin scale. These models will be employed to simulate different flow scenarios for petroleum systems where different types of weathered and fractured bedrock constitute carrier units. Fluid flow through rocks is influenced a. o. by the physical parameters of the rock (such as permeability and porosity, capillary pressure), and by the distribution of faults in an area. These rock characteristics are different in sandstones (the conventional petroleum system hosts) than in weathered and fractured bedrocks. An insight into flow in such unconventional and poorly understood rocks can be obtained from laboratory flow experiments, but the only way to understand flow behaviour on geological time scales is by using mathematical models. Such models need to describe correctly the physical properties (permeability, porosity, grainsize, capillary entry pressure and lithology values) and flow behaviour (migration velocity, fluid retention) of the rocks through which flow is simulated. The mathematical flow simulations will use information from laboratory experiments in this project, to model different flow cases in order to understand the similarities and differences between different petroleum host rock systems. A new flow module will be implemented in the migration model SEMI (Sylta 2004) and will be used for both theoretical flow scenarios and for a case study.

5 Technical Innovations I: Dating of weathering landscape and structures (NGU) Recent technical developments in high resolution multi collector noble gas mass spectrometry enable revisiting applications of conventional K-Ar dating for numerous applications relevant for the petroleum industry ranging from (1) fault zone dating, (2) climate change and weathering, (3) civil engineering and evaluation of earthquake hazards, and (4) CO 2 sequestration. Within the frame of the proposed project, we will establish a conventional K-Ar dating facility at NGU focusing on clay and other mineral dating applications. The new facility will complement the existing NGU 40 Ar- 39 Ar dating facility and will allow the industry partners to timely constrain the saprolite genesis and thus better assess the spatial and temporal evolution of weathering and fracturing processes. In particular, we will address: (1) Dating of brittle fault activity: Slip on brittle fault planes can result in the development of cataclasite and gouge. These brittle fault rocks are composed of crushed rock fragments and authigenic and synkinematic clay minerals. In particular illite or sericite can crystallize by retrograde hydration reactions taking place within the fault zones. The isotopic dating of synkinematic illite formed authigenically within a cataclasite/gouge offers a useful tool to date the time of brittle faulting. Despite the technical challenges, preliminary studies on Norwegian fault rocks indicate that the method is reliable and that it does allow age constraints to be derived from britttle faults that would otherwise not be possible to date. (2) Dating of clay-rich weathering horizons: The presence of authigenic K-bearing illite in weathering horizons allows for K-Ar dating of the actual weathering episode. Dating of authigenic illite allows us to constrain the temporal progression of oxidation fronts during weathering and pedogenic processes. Detailed chronology of the weathering history permits the use of deep weathering profiles as land-based stratigraphic records of past climatic and geomorphic events, complementing evidence from borehole information from basement highs offshore Norway. Initial tests have already been made, together with one partner, to date basement weathering events on southern Utsira high. The results are encouraging and conform with biostratigraphic evidence.

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