Fluid Chemistry of Menengai Geothermal Wells, Kenya
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1 GRC Transactions, Vol. 37, 2013 Fluid Chemistry of Menengai Geothermal Wells, Kenya Sylvia Joan Malimo Geothermal Development Company Ltd, Nakuru, Kenya Keywords Fluid chemistry, geothermometers, aquifer fluid, gas composition, geochemistry ABSTRACT Production of fluids from high-temperature (>200 C) geothermal reservoirs by deep drilling has provided extensive information on the origin and chemistry of these fluids, the associated hydrothermal alteration and various hydrological characteristics of such systems. Geothermal geochemistry is used to identify the origin of geothermal fluids and to quantify the processes that govern their compositions and the associated chemical and mineralogical transformations of the rocks with which the fluids interact. Six (6) geothermal wells from the Menengai Geothermal Field in Kenya have been used in this study to infer the reservoir fluids with respect to species composition. Steam fraction, is estimated to range from of the total well discharge, with the fluids feeding the aquifer having a near neutral ph. Correlation of aqueous silica species with increasing temperature gives a linear pattern indicative of silica as a temperature indicator. Fluid gas concentrations show an increase with increasing aquifer temperature with the one phase wells having the highest aquifer concentration of CO 2, H 2 S and H 2. The CO 2 concentrations show a systematic correlation with respect to selected aquifer temperature, indicating that activity of dissolved CO 2 in the deep fluid is controlled by local equilibrium between geothermal solution and secondary minerals but this correlation can be disturbed by excessive CO 2 input due to magmatic intrusions in the roots of the geothermal system. the Oligocene (30 million years ago) and activity has continued to recent times. The last 2 million years saw the development of large shield volcanoes within the axis of the rift. These centres are the most important geothermal prospects within the rift given that the association between rifting and most of the occurrences of geothermal energy is mainly due to shallow magma chambers underneath the young volcanoes within the rift axis. Volcanic geothermal systems are commonly associated with ring structures or calderas. Kenya has 14 geothermal prospects of which three Olkaria, Menengai and Eburru - are proven geothermal fields. 1.0 Introduction High temperature geothermal systems are associated with central volcanoes and in Kenya, they are associated with the development of the Kenya Rift Valley (KRV). The Kenyan Rift Valley is a continental scale volcano-tectonic feature that stretches from northern to southern Africa. Development of the rift started during Figure 1. Map of the Kenyan Rift Valley showing the geothermal areas. 425
2 Menengai Geothermal Field (MGF) is located within an area characterized by a complex tectonic activity associated with a rift triple junction (Figure 1). This is at the zone where the Nyanza rift joins the main Kenya rift. A large area around the caldera is covered by mainly pyroclastics erupted from centers that are associated with the Menengai volcano. The caldera floor covers an area of about 88 km 2, and is partially covered by young rugged lava flows that are post caldera in age. The major structural systems in the area are the caldera, Molo tectonic axis and the Solai graben. Menengai caldera is elliptical with the major and minor axis measuring about 12 km and 8 km respectively. The ring structure has been disturbed by the Solai graben faults on the NE end and one fracture at the SSW of the caldera wall extending southwards. The Molo TVA/Ol rongai fracture system intersect Menengai caldera on the NNW part (Lagat et al., 2010). Most of the caldera infill lavas are from fissure eruptions that flowed out of the fracture openings (Figure 2). A total of twelve (12) geothermal wells have been drilled successfully in the MGF. Production of fluids from high-temperature (>200 C) geothermal reservoirs by deep drillings has provided extensive information on the origin and chemistry of these fluids, the associated hydrothermal alteration and various hydrological characteristics of such systems. Figure 2. Location of Menengai wells considered for the study. Geothermal fluids are also of interest as analogues to oreforming fluids and they provide important information to further understanding of fossil hydrothermal systems that have been exhumed by erosion. Geothermal geochemistry is used to identify the origin of geothermal fluids and to quantify the processes that govern their compositions and the associated chemical and mineralogical transformations of the rocks with which the fluids interact. The high-temperature, high-pressure, volatile-rich two phase fluids discharged from wet-steam wells in volcanic geothermal systems pose unique challenges in terms of chemical analysis and modelling of initial aquifer fluid compositions. Geochemical assessments of geothermal fluids have provided insights on current reservoir conditions in different parts of the world after prolonged production thus creating further understanding on the behaviour of wells in geothermal systems resulting in insights for formulating resource management (e.g. Angcoy, 2010; Arnórsson et al., 2010; Gudmundsson and Arnórsson, 2005; Karingithi et al, 2010; Scott, 2011). 1.1 Objective The main objective of this study is to characterize the fluid feeding the aquifers in the MGF and attempt to model the aquifer fluid of the Menengai geothermal field with respect to geochemistry as aided by discharge fluid (two-phase) analysis and solute/ gas geothermometers. 2.0 Location and Geological Setting The Menengai caldera is a shield volcano with a summit elevation of 2,278 m (7,474 ft) located at S and E. The massive Menengai shield volcano occupies the floor of the East African Rift. Construction of a 30 km 3 shield volcano beginning about 200,000 years ago was followed by the eruption of two voluminous ash-flow tuffs, each preceded by major pumice falls. The first took place about 29,000 years ago and produced a large caldera. The second major eruption, producing about 30 km 3 of compositionally zoned per-alkaline trachytic magma about 8,000 years ago, was associated with formation of the present-day elliptical 12 x 8 km summit caldera (Lagat et al., 2010). More than 70 post-caldera lava flows cover the caldera floor, the youngest of which may be only a few hundred years old. The caldera floor covers an area of about 88 km 2, and is partially covered by young rugged lava flows that are post caldera in age (Lagat et al, 2010). No historical eruptions are known from Menengai. Fumarolic activity is restricted to the caldera with a few fumaroles located to the north western part of the caldera (at Ol rongai area). The chronology of syn- and postcaldera events is based on correlation with dated fluctuations in the levels of nearby lakes, suggesting that the two ash-flows may have been erupted at about 29,000 and before 12,850 years ago. Lake sediments inside the caldera provide evidence for a late intra-caldera lake from about 10,300 to 8,300 years B.P. (Leat, 1984). The Menengai geothermal field is located within an area characterized by a complex tectonic activity associated with a rift triple junction. This is at the zone where the Nyanza rift joins the main Kenya rift. A large area around the caldera is covered by mainly pyroclastics erupted from centers associated with Menengai volcano. The major structural systems in the area are the Menengai caldera, Molo tecto-volcanic axis (Molo TVA) and the Solai graben. The ring structure has been disturbed by the Solai graben faults on the NE end and one fracture at the SSW of the caldera wall extending southwards. The Molo TVA / Ol rongai fracture system intersects Menengai caldera on the NNW part. Most of the caldera infill lavas are from fissure eruptions that flowed out of the fracture openings. 426
3 3.0 Methodology 3.1 Sampling and Analysis Sampling, sample treatment/preservation and chemical analysis of fluids from wellheads of geothermal boreholes require specific techniques in addition to normal procedures used for surface and non-thermal waters. These techniques ensure attaining representative and uncontaminated samples (considering the high temperatures of geothermal fluids and the effects of cooling or exposing the samples to the atmosphere) and are a first in the steps required to determine aquifer fluid composition. The subsequent steps require that initial aquifer fluid chemical compositions be calculated based on a model for boiling. The procedures are in principle similar to the details discussed by different authors (e.g. Angcoy, 2010; Arnórsson et al., 2010; and Karingithi et al., 2010) and in accordance with the laid down procedures by Armannsson and Olaffson (2006). The primary data for this study are obtained from chemical analysis of water and steam discharges from six wells of which four discharge two-phase: liquid and gas (i.e. MW-01, MW-03, MW-04 and MW-12) and two discharge one phase: superheated steam (MW-06 and MW-09) in the Menengai high-temperature geothermal field. The well samples were collected and analysed by the geochemistry staff of the Geothermal Development Company. A chromium steel Webre separator was used to collect water and steam samples from the pipeline close to the wellhead of each well. A cold water jacketed coil of stainless steel was attached to the separator by a teflon-coated steel tubing. Before sampling, some of the sample was pumped through the sampling/ filtration apparatus to clean the sampling line and remove any contaminants. Steam samples were collected into gas sampling bulbs, which had been evacuated in the laboratory and contained 20 to 50 ml of freshly prepared 40 % w/v NaOH solution. The strong base is used to capture the major non-condensable gases (CO 2 and H 2 S) while residual gases (H 2, CH 4, N 2 and O 2 ) occupy the head space. Samples for analysis of all components except for ph, CO 2 and H 2 S were filtered on site to prevent interaction with any suspended matter through 0.45 μm filter papers into low density polyethylene bottles using a polypropylene filter holder. For the determination of major cations, the samples were acidified with concentrated nitric acid, 1 ml into 100 ml of sample. A 100 ml sample was collected for sulphate analyses. To this sample 2 ml of 0.1 M zinc acetate solution was added to remove H 2 S as ZnS. The ZnS precipitate was filtered from the sample. Two 100 ml low density polyethylene bottles were used to collect samples for the determination of ph and CO 2. Samples for determination of Cl and F were not treated, except for filtration. The non-condensable gases in the headspace of the gas sampling bulb were analysed by gas chromatography. H 2 S was determined onsite titrimetrically using mercuric acetate and dithizone (Ármannsson and Ólafsson, 2006; 2007; Arnórsson, 2000). CO 2 concentration and ph in the liquid phase were determined in the laboratory immediately upon return from the field by potentiometric titration and a calibrated ph electrode respectively. SiO 2, SO 4 and B were analysed by the UV Vis spectrophotometric method, while the major aqueous components Na, K, Mg, Ca, F, Al and Fe were analysed by the ISE method. Cl was analysed titrimetrically while TDS was measured using a TDS meter. It can be summarised that the analyses of water samples are grouped into onsite/immediate analysis (ph, CO 2, H 2 S), and laboratory analysis of major elements and some minor elements. Thirty five (35) samples from the six wells have been used (selected for the requirements of this study). 4.0 Discussion 4.1 Aquifer Fluid Temperature Many chemical and isotopic geothermometers are used to estimate the aquifer temperatures beyond the zone of secondary processes like boiling, cooling and mixing on the basic assumptions that the sampled fluids are representative of the undisturbed aquifers where local equilibrium conditions are achieved. Actual downhole measurements may or may not agree with geothermometers. In this study, the selected aquifer temperature is derived from the geothermometer developed by Fournier and Potter (1982), for two-phase wells, and an average of the CO 2, H 2 S and H 2 gas geothermometers developed by Arnórsson and Gunnlaugsson (1985), for the one-phase wells. The temperature logs of the main aquifers generally compare well with the calculated geothermometers for each well s sample(s), considering that some of the wells seem to have more than one producing aquifer (GDC unpublished report, 2012) From these selected aquifer temperatures (T f ), the aquifer fluid compositions were calculated using the WATCH 2.4 program (Arnórsson et al., 1982), version 2.4 (Bjarnason, 2010). The wells display temperature ranges of 180 C to 330 C, with an average of ~250 C. 4.2 Aquifer Fluid Composition WATCH 2.4 (Arnórsson et al., 1982 and Bjarnason, 2010) was used to infer the initial aquifer fluids. WATCH 2.4 is suited to handle geochemical data from wet-steam wells. The program reads the chemical analyses of water and gas samples collected at the wellhead then computes for the chemical composition at the selected reference temperature (T f ) including ph, aqueous speciation, partial pressure of gases, redox potentials and activity products of mineral dissolution reactions. No mineral precipitation or dissolution is assumed as the fluid is modeled from the aquifer to the surface. Another assumption considered is that chemical reactions do not change the fluid component concentrations and that reactions of fluid with casing material and or wellhead installations do not occur. To model the aquifer composition of the selected wells the analytical data were input into WATCH 2.4, and then iterated until the total silica concentration in the liquid aquifer was consistent with T f. Figure 3 to Figure 5 show the concentrations of various parameters with respect to the selected reference temperature (T f ). Steam fraction, X d, v, estimated at point of collection (using the selected aquifer temperatures) range from of the total well discharge (Figure 3). The fluids feeding the aquifer have a near neutral ph indicative of good chemistry for fluid utilization. Measured ph of discharged samples affects the calculated initial aquifer ph, which also affects the relative concentrations of the carbonate and sulphide-bearing species (Angcoy, 2010). For the wells considered in this study, there seems to be a decrease of CO 2 with increasing ph of the aquifer fluid. Correlation of aqueous 427
4 silica species with increasing temperature gives a linear pattern indicative of silica as a temperature indicator. Fluid gas concentrations show an increase with increasing aquifer temperature with the one phase wells (MW-06 and MW- 09 having the highest aquifer concentration of CO 2, H 2 S and H 2 (Figure 5). The CO 2 concentrations show a systematic correlation with respect to selected aquifer temperature, indicating that activity of dissolved CO 2 in the deep fluid is controlled by local equilibrium between geothermal solution and secondary (2 ) minerals but this correlation can be disturbed by excessive CO 2 input due to magmatic intrusions in the roots of the geothermal system. The wells display high concentration of H 2 gas indicative of equilibrium vapor in the aquifer. This might also be indicative of steam condensation of reservoir gases in an upper aquifer leading to increased non-reactive gases e.g. H 2, in the discharge. The gases discharged from MW-06 reservoir are highly variable. This might be attributed to the little time of discharge and therefore the well had not stabilized. It is however expected that the well discharges will stabilize with time and more so once the production stage embarks. 5.0 Conclusions From the discussions in Section 5.0, it can be concluded that a. Menengai reservoir temperatures are estimated to be >200 C. b. Fluids are of bicarbonate type. c. Aquifer fluids have a near neutral ph good chemistry for fluid utilization. CO 2 H 2 S Figure 3. Steam fraction (X d,v ) at the point of collection of Menengai well discharges. H 2 Figure 4. Aquifer silica concentration of the Menengai wells. Figure 5a, b, c. Aquifer gas (CO 2, H 2 S and H 2 ) concentration of the Menengai wells. 428
5 d. Close to equilibrium of calcite in the aquifer fluid. e. Steam fraction (X d,v ): of the sampled discharge. References Ármannsson, H. and Ólafsson, M. 2006: Collection of geothermal fluids for chemical analysis. ÍSOR, Reykjavík, report ÍSOR-2006/016, 17 pp. Angcoy, E.C. Jr., 2010: Geochemical modelling of the high temperature Mahanagdong geothermalfield, Letye, Philippines. University of Iceland, MSc Thesis, UNU-GTP, Iceland, report 1, 71 pp. Arnórsson, S. (editor), 2000: Isotopic and chemical techniques in geothermal exploration, development and Use. IAEA. 362pp Arnórsson, S., Angcoy, Jr., E.C., Bjarnason, J.Ö., Giroud, N., Gunnarsson, I., Kaasalainen, H., Karingithi, C., and Stefánsson, A., 2010: Gas chemistry of volcanic geothermal systems. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2010, Bali, Indonesia. Arnórsson, S. and Gunnlaugsson, E., 1985: New gas geothermometers for geothermal exploration - calibration and application. Geochim Cosmochim Acta, 49, Arnórsson, S., Sigurdsson, S., and Svavarsson, H., 1982: The chemistry of geothermal waters in Iceland. I. Calculations of aqueous speciation from 0 to 370 C. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 46, Bjarnason J.Ö., 2010: The speciation program WATCH, version 2.4, user s guide. Iceland water chemistry group, Reykjavik, 9 pp. Fournier, R.O., and Potter, R.W.II, 1982: A revised and expanded silica (quartz) geothermometers. Geotherm. Res. Council, Bull., 11, 3-9. Karingithi, C. W., Arnórsson, S., and Gronvold, K., 2010: Processes controlling aquifer fluid compositions in the Olkaria geothermal system, Kenya. J. Volcanol. Geoth. Res., 196, Lagat, J., P. Mbia, C. Mutria, Menengai prospect: Investigations for its geothermal potential. GDC internal report (2010), 64 pp. Leat, P.T., 1984: Geological evolution of the trachytic volcano Menengai, Kenya Rift Valley. J Geol Soc London, 141: Scott, S.W., 2011: Gas chemistry of the Hellisheidi geothermal field. University of Iceland, MSc Thesis. REYST report , 69 pp. Appendix Table A1. Menengai well discharges. MW-06 and MW-09 have one-phase discharges. Well No. Sample ID Date of sampling WSP (bar-g) Water Sample (mg/kg) Gas sample (mmol/kg) CO 2 H 2 S B SiO 2 Na K Mg Ca F Cl SO 4 Fe TDS CO 2 H 2 S H 2 CH 4 N 2 O 2 MW Oct / MW May / MW Dec / MW Nov / MW Oct / MW Sep / MW Sep / MW Sep / MW Aug / MW Aug / MW Jul / MW Jul / MW Jun / MW Jun / MW Feb / MW Nov / MW May / MW Apr / MW Jan / MW Dec / MW Nov / MW Feb / MW May MW May MW Apr MW Apr MW Apr MW Apr MW Apr MW Mar MW Mar MW Mar MW Mar MW Nov MW Nov
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